LB 
2805 


School  flrJTTiini  f.- 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L   I 

LB 
2805 
P95 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

'    FEB  2  5  1925 

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^^  2  0  I92g- 


tl 


'  7 


SCHOOL  IDilllSTRlTlOl 


including  the 


Organization  and  Supervision 
of  Schools 


by 


John  T.  Prince,  Ph.  D. 


Author  of  Courses  of  Studies  and  Methods  of  Teaching  ;  Methods 
of  Instruction  and  Organization  of  the  Schools  of  Germany,  etc. 


/  (a  ^  ^  ^ 


SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher 


Copyright,  1906,  by  C.    W.  Bardeen 

7^ o  v.  J^o  7 


PREFACE 

American  conditions  do  not  seem  to  favor  an  easy, 
simple  and  effective  administration  of  schools.     Among 
the  adverse  conditions  existing  in  many  places  are:  (1) 
an    overpowering    sentiment     in    favor    of    local  self- 
government  and  a  strong  opposition  to  centralization  of 
,    any  kind;  (2)  a  non-recognition  by  the  people  of  the  need 
V  of  professional  knowledge  and  skill  in  carrying  on  the 
V3  schools;  (3)  a  tendency  to  adopt  political  methods  in 
vN)  the  election   of    school  officials  as   well  as   in  matters 
of  school  control;  (4)  the  comparatively  short  terms  of 
""■^  administrative    offices   and    the    frequent    changes   of 
membership  in  them;  (5)  the  large  extent  of  sparsely 
V.  inhabited  regions  and  the   consequent   difficulties    of 
school  attendance    and  classification;  and   (6)  the  dif- 
ference of  financial  ability  in  the  various  sections  of  a 
^  State  and  the  variety  of  needs  to  be  met.     Such  condi- 
"\  tions  as  these  are  likely  to  foster  mistakes  of  adminis- 
\  tration  which  can  be  avoided  only  by  the  greatest  care 


^ 


and  effort. 

Among  the  mistakes  of  school  administration  act- 
ually existing  in  this  country  may  be  mentioned  first 
the  tendency  of  over  organization  in  which  the  atten- 
tion of  the  workers  is  turned  away  from  the  product  to 
the  machinery  which  turns  it  out.  Again  there  is  the 
other  extreme  of  a  lack  of  organization  by  which  the 
time  and  effort  of  school  officials  are  wasted.  But 
more  frequently  perhaps  than  all  else  is  the  loose  or- 
ganization by  which  the  duties  of  school  officials  over- 
lap one  another,  frequently  resulting  in  confusion  and 
friction  of  a  serious  kind. 

In  matters  of  school  supervision  also  there  is  the 
same  tendency  to  extremes  of  practice  which  exists  in 


vi  Preface 

school  organization — the  over-supervision  on  the  one 
hand  which  takes  away  the  original  freedom  and  orig- 
inality of  the  teachers,  and  the  absence  of  supervision 
on  the  other  which  gives  an  opportunity  for  teachers  to 
carry  out  in  questionable  ways  the  lowest  ends  of  edu- 
cation and  which  gives  no  encouragement  or  support 
to  teachers  who  are  striving  to  attain  the  highest  ends. 

It  is  difficulties  like  these  which  this  book  is  intend- 
ed to  meet.  It  is  not  expected  that  theories  of  admin- 
istration can  be  applied  everywhere  exactly  as  they  are 
here  given;  but  it  is  hoped  that  their  presentation 
will  be  of  substantial  assistance  to  members  of 
School  Boards,  Superintendents  and  Principals  of 
schools,  as  well  as  to  professional  students  of  educa- 
tion in  Colleges  and  Normal  Schools. 

It  should  be  said  that  many  of  the  recommeded 
plans  and  outlines  are  simply  a  transcript  of  existing 
practices.  Full  credit,  however ,  could  not  be  given  in 
all  cases  because  of  the  changes  in  them  which  were 
thought  desirable  to  make  and  because  of  the  fact  that 
in  a  few  instances  the  authorship  was  unknown. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTEE  PAGE 

I  The  Nature  and  Source  of  School  Organi- 
zation    1 

II  Legislative  Provisions  respecting  the  Organ- 
ization of  Schools 6 

III  State  Administration  of  Schools 21 

IV  City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools..  32 
V  District    and     County     Administration    of 

Schools 52 

VI  The  Superintendent   as  Organizer 59 

VII  The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor 150 

VIII  The  Superintendent  and  Community  Inter- 
ests    181 

IX  The  Principal   as  Organizer  and  Supervisor  187 

X  The  Teacher  as  Organizer 202 

XI  Schools  for  Defectives  and   Delinquents 220 

Xir  Records  and  Reports 226 

APPENDIXES 

A  The  Evolution  of  School  Supervision 247 

B  The  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools 265 

C  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools 272 

D  School  Revenues  and  their  Distribution 283 

E  Special  Schools  and  Classes 290 

E  School   Hygiene 298 

G  General    Plan   of   Studies   for  Elementary 

Schools 361 

H  Plans  of  Studies  for  High  Schools 404 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


CHAPTER  I 

/  c^s  z^ 

THE  NATURE  AND  SOURCE  OF  SCHOOL  ORGANI- 
ZATION 

The  organs  comprising  a  system  of  educa- 
tion are  the  essential  means  or  instruments  by 
which  the  work  of  education  is  done — the  or- 
ganization becoming  more  and  more  complex  as 
the  system  extends  in  function  or  in  the  number  tion. 
of  pupils  reached.  A  school  of  one  pupil  with 
one  subject  of  instruction  must  have  its  organi- 
zation no  less  than  a  system  of  many  schools 
with  a  large  number  of  subjects.  The  place 
and  means  of  instruction  must  be  provided  even 
though  they  be  only  Garfield's  well-known  log 
with  a  teacher  at  one  end  of  it.  The  reach 
from  such  an  organization  to  the  organization 
needed  for  a  city  system  is  very  great,  and  yet 
in  these  extremes  of  conditions  and  in  all  the  in- 
termediate points,  a  choice  of  means  must  be 
made;  and  it  will  be  found  that  that  organiza- 
tion is  most  effective  in  which  each  part  or  The  most 
organ  is  best  suited  to  perform  its  particular  ^'^^^^^^f  or- 
function  with  reference  to  all  other  functions  "' 
and  the  result  to  be  reached. 

Before    considering    the    functions   of    these 
organs  or  what  the  organs  should  be,  it  may  be 

1 


ScJiOol   Organization  arid  Supervision 


Protection  of 
schools 
against  parti- 
sanship and 
sectarianism. 


The  adjust- 
ment of  local 
and  central  au- 
thority. 


well  to  refer  briefly  to  the  power  which  lies  be- 
hind the  organization  and  which  is  alike  its 
source  and  defence.  This  power  is  the  will  of 
the  people  as  expressed  in  the  constitution  and 
laws  of  the  state.  In  the  constitution  there 
should  be  a  recognition  of  the  necessity  of  main- 
taining free  schools,  and  provision  should  be 
made  to  protect  them  from  the  debasement  of 
partisanship  and  sectarianism.  The  statutes 
should  go  further  by  designating  certain  condi- 
tions and  means  for  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  the  schools.  In  the  creation  of 
offices  and  in  the  authorization  of  official  func- 
tions the  utmost  wisdom  is  needed.  The  foster- 
ing of  the  people's  interest  in  the  schools  and  the 
protection  of  their  rights  will  warrant  the  plac- 
ing of  a  large  measure  of  power  and  responsi- 
bility directly  into  their  hands  and  into  the 
hands  of  local  boards. 

On  the  other  hand  the  protection  of  the 
schools  from  neglect  and  mistakes  occasioned  by 
indifference  or  ignorance  on  the  part  of  those 
most  directly  concerned  will  require  some  cen- 
tralization of  power,  either  by  restrictive  legis- 
lation or  by  the  giving  of  authority  to  a  central 
board  or  commission.  To  what  extent  general 
laws  should  be  made  in  matters  of  education  and 
how  the  powers  conferred  upon  local  and  state 
authorities  should  be  adjusted  are  difficult  ques- 
tions and  can  be  determined  only  by  principles 
of  wise  government  and  by  a  careful  considera- 
tion of  circumstances. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  influence 


Nature  and  Source  of  School  Organization         3 

of  illiteracy  or  of  poor  schools  extends  beyond 
the  circle  immediately  concerned.  What  affects 
for  ill  one  part  of  the  state  affects  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  all  other  parts.  If  therefore  a  large 
majority  of  people  are  desirous  of  maintaining  a 
high  degree  of  intelligence  throughout  the  state 
they  are  justified,  in  the  interests  of  the  state 
and  of  all  the  children  in  it,  in  making  condi- 
tions to  which  the  minority  must  conform.  For 
this  reason  the  state  rightfully  establishes  a 
standard  of  educational  opportunity  for  children 
which  must  be  met  by  every  town ;  and  lest  some 
of  the  towns  may  be  too  heavily  burdened  in 
meeting  the  requirements,  the  state  should  pro- 
vide for  such  equalization  of  taxation  as  will  Equalization 
enable  all  towns  with  reasonable  effort  to  comply  °*  educational 
with  the  provisions  of  the  law.  To  carry  out  andTaxation 
these  beneficent  ends  there  must  be  provided  by 
law  an  organization  both  of  official  functions 
and  of  material  means.  Such  an  organization 
involves  questions  of  the  adjustment  of  central 
and  local  powers  which  are  as  difficult  of  solu- 
tion as  they  are  important. 

Among  the  advantages  of  influential  centrali- 
zation in  education  may  be  mentioned  (1)  the 
certainty  of  maintaining  a  high  standard  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  schools  of  all  parts  of  the  state 
(2)  the  prevention  of  sudden  changes  of  policy  due 
to  local  jealousies  or  to  the  ignorance  of  local  offi-  of  centraiiza- 
cials  (3)  needed  assistance  in  determining  the  tion. 
curriculum  and  in  making  a  course  of  studies 
(4)  the  securing  of  uniformly  good  attendance 
of  pupils  throughout  the  state. 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Advantages  of 
decentraliza- 
tion. 


Constant 
changes  in 
systems  of 
education. 


The  advantages  of  centralization  are  positive 
and  apparent,  but  they  are  no  more  positive  and 
apparent  than  are  the  advantages  of  giving  a 
large  degree  of  responsibility  and  power  directly 
to  the  people  or  of  what  is  sometimes  called  de- 
centralization. The  chief  of  these  advantages 
are  (1)  the  encouragement  of  individual  interest 
and  effort  in  behalf  of  the  schools  on  the  part  of 
the  people  (2)  the  ready  adaptation  of  means  to 
the  peculiar  needs  of  given  localities  (3)  the  op- 
portunity for  a  healthy  and  progressive  rivalry 
among  communities  (4)  the  stimulus  to  personal 
exertion  and  professional  skill  on  the  part  of 
teachers  and  supervisors. 

It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  organization  of 
any  new  system  of  schools  will  partake  some- 
what of  the  character  of  existing  civil  condi- 
tions, and  that  modifications  in  the  direction  of 
centralization  or  decentralization  will  be  made 
as  the  needs  and  the  intelligence  of  the  people  de- 
mand them.  Thus  it  is  that  the  systems  of  edu- 
cation in  Europe  are  highly  centralized  but  are 
changing  slowly  in  the  direction  of  placing  the 
schools  in  the  control  of  the  people.  In  this 
country  there  is  a  great  variety  of  practice,  j  In 
some  sections  the  direction  and  support  of  ihe 
schools  are  largely  under  state  control,  while  in 
other  sections  a  large  share  of  their  control  and 
financial  support  devolves  upon  the  municipality. 
As  might  be  expected,  a  constant  change  is  going 
on  in  the  administration  of  the  schools  of  all 
sections — some  of  the  states  changing  in  the  di- 
rection of  local  control  and  support  and  others 


Nature  and  Source  of  School  Organization         5 

in  the  direction  of  ceDtralization,  These  changes 
will  doubtless  go  on  until  a  fair  balance  of  gen- 
eral and  local  control  is  reached,  when,  it  may 
be  supposed,  the  forms  and  conditions  of  school 
administration  throughout  the  country  will  be 
alike  in  many  important  respects. 


CHAPTER  II 


A  suificient 
number  of 
schools  re- 
quired by  law. 


LEGISLATIVE   PROVISIONS   RESPECTING   THE   OR- 
GANIZATION  OF   SCHOOLS 

The  following  brief  outline  embraces  the  main 
features  of  legislative  provisions  needed  for  the 
establishment  of  a  system  of  schools  in  which 
a  large  measure  of  power- is  given  to  the  people 
subject  to  some  needed  restrictive  conditions: 

1.  The  maintenance  in  every  town  and  city  -of  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  elementary  schools  for  all  the  children 
of  a  certain  school  age  and  for  a  given  time  in  the  year  ; 
and  the  maintenance  of  high  schools  in  cities  and  large 
towns. 

The  general  requirement  of  a  "sufficient 
number  of  schools"  seems  wiser  than  that  of 
designating  the  distance  beyond  which  pupils 
may  not  be  obliged  to  walk  or  ride  to  school, 
inasmuch  as  what  might  be  regarded  as  a  rea- 
sonable distance  under  some  conditions  would  be 
under  other  conditions  quite  unreasonable.  A 
distance  limit  also  might  preclude  towns  from 
furnishing  free  conveyance  of  children  to  the 
schools  as  is  provided  in  several  states.* 

The  term  "  sufficient  number  of  schools  "  also 
has   reference   to   efficiency    as  well  as  to  con- 

*  For  a  statement  as  to  the  desirability  of  con- 
solidating the  schools  and  for  suggestions  relat- 
ing to  means  and  method  of  consolidation,  see 
Appendix  C. 


Legislative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schools  7 

venience.     For  the  protection  of  the  schools  it 

may  be  found  necessary  to  designate  by  law  a 

maximum  number  of  pupils   for  each  teacher. 

Some   countries  and  states   have   made  such  a 

limit,  but  the  number  in  a  few  cases  has  been 

placed  so  high  as  to  set  a  wrong  standard  for  com-  "^^^^  number 
...  1-1  jj.i_  -J        J.-  £  of  pupils  to  a 

mumties  which  regard  the  consideration  or  econo-  teacher 
my  more  than  that  of  the  children's  welfare.  In 
some  instances  also  the  legal  hmit  is  ignored  in 
practice.  It  is  very  important  in  this  as  well  as 
in  other  educational  matters  that  the  legal  re- 
quirements be  kept  not  greatly  in  advance  of 
public  sentiment. 

The  time  during  which  schools  should  be  re- 
quired to  be  maintained  will  depend  somewhat      15  tune  ve- 

^  '■  quiiement  of 

upon  circumstances,  but  8  months  would  seem  scho  ma^^- 
to  be  the  least  time  for  which  any  state  should  tenau. 
require  the  schools  to  be  kept  in  the  year. 
Similiar  reasons  for  an  indefiniteness  of  state- 
ment may  be  urged  respecting  the  legal  period 
of  compulsory  school  attendance.  A  reasonable 
regard  for  the  welfare  of  the  children  however 
would  warrant  the  state's  requiring  6  years  at 
least  of  attendance  upon  the  schools  all  the  time 
they  are  in  session.* 

*  The  compulsory  school  attendance  laws  vary 
considerably  in  the  United  States.  In  most  of 
the  30  states  having  compulsory  laws  children 
from  8  to  14  years  of  age  are  required  to  attend 
school  for  12,  16  or  20  weeks  during  each  year. 
In  some  of  the  states  the  required  time  for  school 
attendance  is  greater — thus  in  Colorado,  Penn- 
sylvania, Connecticut,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Minnesota  the  required  time  for  school  attend- 


8 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


High  schools 
to  be  estab- 
lished by  law. 


In  addition  to  the  requirements  respecting  ele- 
mentary schools,  there  should  be  provision  made 
by  law  for  the  establishment  of  high  schools. 
That  such  schools  should  be  free  and  within 
reach  of  all  the  children  in  a  republic  like  ours 
is  coming  to  be  regarded  as  wise  and,  for  many 
parts  of  the  country,  as  feasible.  They  may  be 
required  to  be  maintained  in  certain  accessible 
centres  or  they  may  be  required  in  all  cities  and 
in  towns  of  a  given  size.  The  studies  required 
to  be  taught  may  be  designated  or  there  may  be 
a  provision  that  the  schools  shall  prepare  pupils 
for  entrance  to  college  or  the  higher  technical 
schools.* 

ance  is  from  8  to  16  years  of  age  with  some  ex- 
ceptions during  the  last  2  years.  In  Massachu- 
setts and  New  York  children  of  compulsory  age 
are  required  to  attend  school  all  the  time  the 
schools  are  in  session  and  the  schools  must  be 
in  session  32  weeks.  In  Germany  children 
are,  with  some  limitations,  obliged  to  attend 
school  for  7  and  8  years  after  the  age  of  6.  In 
France  the  compulsory  age  is  from  6  to  13,  and 
in  England  it  is  from  5  to  14,  For  further  de- 
tails respecting  school  attendance  in  this  and 
foreign  countries  see  Hughes's  "The  Making  of 
Citizens",  pp.  134-141. 

*  In  Massachusetts  such  high  schools  are  re- 
quired to  be  maintained  in  all  cities  and  towns 
containiag  500  families,  and  provision  is  made 
for  the  children  of  other  towns  to  attend  some 
high  school  at  the  expense  either  of  the  town  in 
which  they  live  or  of  the  state. 

Several  of  the  central  and  western  states  have 
provided  by  law  for  county  high  schools  to  be 


Legislative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schools  9 

2.  The  maintenance  of  schools  for  the  care  and  edu- 
cation of  habitual  school  absentees,  of  juvenile  offenders, 
and  of  abnormal  or  defective  children  who  cannot  be 
cared  for  in  the  ordinary  public  schools. 

Compulsory  school  attendance  implies  an  obli- 
gation on  the  part  of  the  state  to  make  suitable  J^^  ^ainte- 
provision  for  habitual  violators  of  the  law,  either  schools  for 
by  placing  the  absentees  in  good   homes  or  by  school  absen- 
establishing  truant  or  parental  schools.     These  *^^^- 
schools  should  be  situated  in  convenient  localities 
and  be  under  the  control  and  care  of  the  state.* 

Other  schools  should  be  established  for  those 
morally  delinquent  and  physically  defective  chil- 
dren who   cannot  be  educated   in  the  ordinary 

supported  and  controlled  by  the  county.  In  New 
York  tuition  in  high  schools  of  non-  resident  pu- 
pils from  schools  not  maintaining  an  academic 
department  is  paid  by  the  state,  at  the  rate  of 
$20  for  32  weeks.  In  Nebraska  the  law  permits 
pupils  of  country  towns  to  attend  an  existing 
high  school  and  provides  for  tuition  fees  at  fixed 
rates  to  be  paid  by  the  county  in  which  they  re- 
side. In  Minnesota  state  aid  is  given  to  city 
high  schools,  approved  by  state  educational  au- 
thorities upon  condition  of  providing  free  tuition. 
For  information  relating  to  free  high  schools  for 
rural  pupils  see  report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  for  1899-1900,  p.  643. 

*  There  seem  to  be  good  reasons  for  keeping 
all  reformatory  and  penal  institutions  in  the  care 
of  the  state.  Possible  exceptions  may  be  those 
institutions  which  are  supported  by  large  cities 
mainly  for  their  own  benefit.  In  any  case  they 
should  be  in  charge  of  unpaid  boards  or  com- 
missions, with  paid  executive  agents. 


10  Schook  Organization  and  Supervision 


Schools  of  re- 
formation and 
special  schools 
for  defectives. 


The  function 
of  state  board 
of  education 
advisory. 


public  schools,  such  as  juvenile  offenders,  blind, 
deaf,  and  feeble-minded.  Attendance  at  these 
schools,  as  in  the  case  of  normal  children,  should 
be  compulsory  for  all  children  of  a  certain  age 
whose  education  is  not  otherAvise  provided  for. 
Such  schools  should  be  entirely  separate,  from 
truant  schools  and  from  the  ordinary  public 
schools,  and  should  be  so  organized  and  conducted 
that  the  fullest  benefits  to  all  concerned  may  be 
secured.  * 

3.  The  estahlisJiment  of  a  state  board  of  education 
and  the  designation  of  its  powers  and  duties. 

The  powers  and  duties  devolving  upon  the 
state  board  should  be  very  general  so  far  as  its 
administration  of  the  schools  is  concerned.  In 
all  matters  pertaining  to  the  direct  management 
of  the  schools  its  function  should  be  mainly 
advisory  rather  than  directive.  Through  its 
executive  officers  it  should  lead  and  guide  the 
educational  sentiment  of  the  state  and  be  ready 
to  shape  such  legislation  as  will  be  needed  to 
promote  the  greatest  efficiency  of  effort  in  be- 
half of  the  schools,  t 

In  the  composition  of  the  state  board,  as  well 
as  in  the  method  by  which  its  members  are  se- 
lected, much  latitude  may  be  given  in  the  statute 

*  A  fuller  treatment  of  this  subject  will  be 
found  in  Chapter  VI,  under  the  heading  of 
"Special  Schools  and  Classes" — also  in  Appen- 
dix E. 

t  For  details  respecting  the  duties  of  the  state 
board  of  education  and  its  executive  officers  see 
Chapter  III. 


Legislative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schools    11 

requirements.     The  desirability    of  having  the 

affairs  of  education  removed   as  far  as  possible 

from  politics  would  favor  the   appointment   of 

members  by  the  governor  rather  than  election  by    ' 

the   legislature  or  people.     And  to  secure   the 

needed  knowledge  and  continuity  of  service,  the 

term  of  office  of  members  should  be  at  least  four 

years  in  length.     If  the  board  has,  as  it  should  ^^^^bersbip  of 

,  .■  nri  T  ,  ,       .       State  board 

have,  executive  omcers  who  act  as  experts  m  ^nd  term  of 
educational  matters,  it  need  not  and  perhaps  office. 
should  not  be  composed  of  professional  teachers. 
This  restriction  will  be  especially  apparent  in  the 
case  of  teachers  in  institutions  which  are  under 
the  charge  of  the  board.  There  are  good  reasons 
for  having  upon  the  board  one  or  more  members 
of  the  state  executive  department.  The  number 
of  appointed  members  should  be  small,  perhaps 
not  more  than  five.  Better  attendance  at  meet- 
ings will  be  secured  and  a  greater  degree  of  re- 
sponsibility will  be  felt  in  a  small  board  than  in 
a  large  one.* 

*  Tn  Prussia  and  other  states  of  Germany  the 
general  board  consists  of  skilled  men  to  whom 
large  powers  are  given.  They  are  appointed  by 
the  minister  of  instruction,  who  is  a  member  of 
the  government.  In  France  the  general  board 
or  council  also  consists  of  educational  leaders 
endowed  with  large  powers;  they  are  variously 
appointed,  some  by  the  president  of  the  Repub- 
lic and  some  by  officials  of  educational  institu- 
tions. In  the  composition  of  state  boards  in 
this  country  there  is  a  great  variety  of  practice, 
some  of  the  boards  consisting  chiefly  or  wholly 
of  professional  teachers,  some  of  designated 
officials,  and  some  of  all  classes  of  citizens.     In 


12  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

4-  The  establishment  of  a  local  board  for  each  town 
and  city,  with  some  provision  to  meet  the  needs  of  coun- 
try districts  or  small  toivns. 

The  question  of  organization  respecting;  the 
local  school  boards  has  mainly  to  do  with  the 
manner  of  selection,  number  of  members,  and 
term  of  office  of  members. 

First  as  to  the  selection  of  members.  Shall 
they  be  elected  by  the  people,  by  the  city  or  town 
council,  or  ^j  the  executive?  No  doubt  has 
been  raised  in  this  country  either  in  practice  or 
in  theory  as  to  the  advisability  of  the  popular 

states  where  members  of  the  board  are  not  des- 
ignated by  law,  they  are  either  elected  for  a  term 
of  years  by  the  general  assembly  or  appointed 
by  the  governor.  In  Michigan  3  members  are 
elected  by  the  people.  In  New  York  all  state 
education  is  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  regents  of 
the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  con- 
sisting of  1 1  members  elected  by  the  legislature 
on  joint  ballot,  each  for  a  term  of  1 1  years,  one 
retiring  each  year.  The  following  examples 
serve  as  types  of  practice  followed  in  the  various 
states : 

Indiana :  Board  composed  of  governor,  state 
superintendent,  president  of  state  universiy, 
president  of  Purdue  university,  president  of 
state  normal  school,  and  superintendents  of  the 
three  largest  cities  of  the  state. 

Massachusetts :  Board  composed  of  governor, 
heutenant-governor,  and  8  persons  appoilated  by 
the  governor,  one  retiring  each  year. 

Connecticut :  Board  composed  of  the  governor, 
lieutenant-governor,  and  4-  persons  elected  by  the 
general  ssembly. 


Legislative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schoo  Is    13 

election  of  members   in   rural   communities   or 
small  towns.     But  the  arguments  in   favor  of 
popular  elections  in  such  communities  are  equally- 
strong  in  all.     The  public  schools  are  the  schools  Members  of 
of  the   public,   that   is  of   the  people;  and  the  local  school 
.people  should  be  trusted  in  the  control  of  their  f^iJ^te^j  ^„  the 
schools  to  the  extent  at  least  of  electing  proper  people. 
persons  to  manage  them.     For  special  reasons 
the  administrative  board  should  be  given  large 
powers — in  fact  almost  unlimited  powers  in  all 
questions  of  management.    The  largeness  of  their 
powers  and  the  direct  interest  the  people  have 
in  the  schools  will  induce  the  people  to  make  a 
careful  selection.     While  in  some  communities 
there  may  be  possible  dangers  attending  a  pop- 
ular election  of  members,  the  dangers  in  the  long 
run  of  taking  it  out  of  the  hands  of  the  people 
and  of  placing  it  in  the  hands  of  a  single  person 
or  commission  are  far  more  likely  to  be  realized. 

The  tendency  in  recent  years  to  reduce  the 
number  of  members  of  tlie  board  and  increase  g,^^j^||  i^oavfl.? 
their  term  of  service  is  noticeable,  A  board  of  desirable. 
3,  5,  or  7  persons  is  likely  to  represent  the  best 
sentiment  of  the  community  quite  as  well  as  a 
larger  one.  Moreover  the  members  of  a  small 
board  are  likely  to  be  more  carefully  selected 
than  those  of  a  large  one. 

The  responsible  and  intricate  duties  of  local 
school  boards  render  it  advisable  to  make  the 
term  of  service  for  which  members  are  elected 
n  long  one.  Three  years  is  not  too  long  a  time 
for  members  to  acquire  a  good  knowledge  of  the 
needs  of  the  schools  and  of  the  means  of  meeting 


14 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


The  term  of 
service  of 
school  boards. 


Eligibility  of 
members. 


The  organiza- 
tion of  county 
boards. 


them.  It  seems  also  advisable  that  the  terms 
of  service  of  the  members  shall  Dot  expire  at 
the  same  time.  It  would  be  well  for  the  length 
of  the  term  and  the  time  of  election  to  be  such  as 
will  obhge  only  a  third  of  the  members  to  retire 
in  any  one  year.  By  this  plan  at  least  three 
years  would  be  required  to  effect  an  entire 
change  of  membership  by  ordinary  elections. 
A  further  provision  should  be  made  that  no 
teacher  shall  be  eligible  for  membership  on  any 
school  board  which  elects  him  to  his  position  as 
teacher  or  which  fixes  his  salary. 

To  meet  the  needs  of  rural  schools  where  the 
county  is  the  unit  area  of  organization,  laws 
should  be  passed  enabhng  them  to  have  privileges 
as  nearly  equal  to  those  of  villages  and  cities  as 
possible.  Provision  for  the  election  of  a  county 
board  should  be  made  which  shall  have  jurisdic- 
tion over  all  the  schools  of  the  county.  This  board 
may  be  elected  and  organized  in  a  manner  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  town  boards  already  alluded  to, 
and  it  may  have  essentially  the  same  duties.-^ 

5.  Provision  for  the  appointment  of  snch  officers  and 
teachers  as  will  be  needed  to  secure  regular  attendance 
of  children  upon  the  schools,  to  insure  the  health  of 
tlie  pupils,  and  to  raise  the  schools  to  the  highest  pos- 
sible degree  of  efficiency. 

Compulsory  laws  of  school  attendance  presup- 
pose the  existence  of  the  means  of  their  execu- 
tion.    Chief  among  these   means   are   properly 

*  For  the  details  of  a  possible  plan  of  county 
organization  for  the  supervision  of  schools  see 
Chapter  IV.     Also  Appendix  B. 


Local  and  state 


Legislative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schools    15 

appointed  attendance  officers  to  look  after  those 
pupils  who  are,  without  good  reason,  absent 
from  school.  In  addition  to  attendance  officers 
appointed  by  local  boards  there  should  be  one  or 
more  state  attendance  officers  appointed  by  the 
state  board  of  education  whose  duty  will  be  to  offlcers~to"be^ 
see  that  the  compulsory  attendance  laws  are  en-  appoiuted. 
forced.  This  will  be  especially  needed  in  coun- 
try districts  where  the  obstacles  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  attendance  laws  are  the  greatest. 

The  practice  which  prevails  in  many  cities  of 
appointing  health  officers  for  schools  should  be 
extended  so  as  to  include  by  law  all  the  schools 
of  the  state.  It  should  be  required  of  the  school 
board  in  every  city  and  town  to  appoint  one  or 
more  health  officers  whose  duty  will  be  to  inspect  ^^   ,^^   ^ 

•^  '■  Health  officers 

the  physical  condition  of  the  pupils  and  to  pro-  to  be  appoint- 
vide  not  only  for  the  prevention  of  disease  but  ed. 
also  for  the  promotion  of  health  among  them. 

Such  provision  should  be  made  by  law  as  will 
insure  for  all  the  schools  the  best  possible  service 
both  in  teaching  and  in  supervision.     A  mini- 
mum  of  qualifications   for  teachers   should  be  qualifications 
designated  by  the  state  board  of  education,  and  of  teachers  to 
provision  should  be  made  whereby  each  local  ^^  designated. 
board   in  making  a  selection  of  teachers  may 
select  from  candidates  only  those  whose  character 
and  ability  are  unquestioned. 

The  school  board  of  each  city  and  large  town 
should  be  required  to  elect  a  superintendent  of  skilled  super- 
schools,  of  given  scholastic  and  professional  qual-  intendents  of 
ifications.     For  the  smaller  towns  district  super-  '^f  ^'""'f  *^  ^® 
vision  which  has  worked  so  well  in  some  states 


16 


School  Organization  and  Sujiervision 


School  super- 
vision in  small 
towns. 


County  [super- 
intendents. 


Subjects  of 
study  to  be 
designated  by 
law. 


might  well  be  made  a  requirement  of  statute  law. 
The  essential  features  of  such  a  plan  might  be 
as  follows  : 

(1)  Two  or  more  towns  to  unite  for  purposes 
of  supervision,  the  valuation  of  each  town  not 
to  exceed  a  certain  sum  and  the  aggregate  num- 
ber of  schools  in  all  the  towns  to  be  witliin  given 
limits. 

(2)  The  formation  of  district  limits  to  be 
made  by  the  state  board  of  education. 

(3)  The  superintendent  to  be  elected  by  the 
combined  boards  in  such  a  way  as  to  protect  the 
interests  of  each  town  and  with  designated  limi- 
tations of  choice, 

(4)  Provision  for  such  aid  from  the  state  as 
will  be  needed  to  pay  the  superintendent's  salary. 

In  states  where  the  district  plan  of  supervision 
is  not  feasible,  one  or  more  county  superintend- 
ents should  be  appointed  by  the  county  board, 
with  certain  limitations  as  to  number  of  schools, 
qualifications,  etc.* 

6.  The  designation  of  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the 
schools. 

The  required  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  should  be  language  (including 
reading,  spelling,  penmanship,  composition,  writ- 
ing and  English  grammar),  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, elementary  science,  physiology  and  hygiene. 
School  boards  should  be  free  to  provide  for  the 
teaching  of  any  subject  not  required  to  be  taught, 

*  For  possible  plans  of  district  and  county  su- 
pervision see  Chapter  Y  and  Appendix  B. 


Provisions  for 
liigli  schools. 


Legis  lative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schoo  Is    1 7 

but  certain  desirable  subjects  may  be  named 
in  the  law  as  optional,  such  as  geometry,  alge- 
bra, industrial  training  and  a  foreign  language.* 

In  the  law  for  the  establishment  of  high 
schools  there  should  be  provisions  which  will  in- 
sure a  certain  degree  of  efficiency.  These  provis- 
ions may  include  fitness  of  teachers,  subjects  of 
instruction,  and  length  of  course,  f 

7.  Provision  for  the  financial  support  of  the  schools. 

There  is  no  part  of  school  legislation  more 
difficult  to  formulate  than  that  relating  to  taxa-  l^'^i^uities  in 
tion  for  the  support  of  schools,  especially  in  schools. 
states  where  the  wealth  is  unequally  distributed 
and  where  other  conditions  of  school  mainte- 
nance are  widely  different.  Not  only  is  the  mat- 
ter of  equalization  of  taxation  to  be  considered, 
but  the  question  of  how  far  local  support  of  the 

*  For  details  concerning  the  curriculum  in  this 
and  foreign  countries  see  Chapter  VI  and  Ap- 
pendix G. 

t  In  the  Massachusetts  high  schools,  teachers 
of  "  competent  ability  and  good  morals  "  are  re- 
quired to  give  instruction  in  such  subjects  "as 
may  be  required  for  the  general  purpose  of  train- 
ing and  culture  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of 
preparing  pupils  for  admission  to  state  normal 
schools,  technical  schools,  and  colleges. "  These 
schools  are  required  to  maintain  one  or  more 
courses  of  study  at  least  4  years  in  length  40 
weeks  in  each  year.  The  requirement  to  maintain 
high  schools  is  made  of  all  cities  and  tow'ns  hav- 
ing 500  families.  Towns  having  fewer  than  500 
families  are  to  permit  qualified  pupils  to  attend 
high  schools  in  other  towns,  the  tuition  for  the 
same  to  be  paid  in  whole  or  part  by  the  state. 


18  School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Two  methods 
of  distributing 
school  fuuds. 


Importance  of 
local  taxation 
for  support  of 
schools. 


schools  is  Decessar\"  to  a  proper  public  spirit  in 
relation  to  education  and  to  the  prevention  of 
a  weakening  dependence  upon  the  state  on  ac- 
count of  benefits  received. 

General  laws  of  taxation  for  the  support  of 
schools  and  distribution  of  funds  are  found  to 
proceed  either  from  the  municipality  to  the  state 
or  vice  versa.  For  example  the  law  may  provide 
as  it  does  in  some  states  that  a  certain  sum  per 
pupil  or  per  school  shall  be  raised  by  local  taxa- 
tion, with  the  understanding  that  the  balance 
needed  for  the  support  of  the  schools  shall  be 
drawn  either  from  an  established  fund  or  from 
funds  raised  by  general  or  state  tax.  Or  as  in 
other  states  the  law  may  provide  that  each 
municipality  shall  receive  a  certain  sum  per 
pupil  or  per  teacher  from  the  state  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  the  balance  needed  shall  be 
raised  by  local  taxation. 

Again,  it  is  assumed  in  some  states  that  the 
more  wealthy  municipalities  while  sharing  in 
the  general  or  state  tax  are  not  in  need  of  aid 
and  therefore  ought  not  to  receive  any  return 
whatever  from  the  state ;  that  is,  these  cities  and 
towns  provide  means  not  only  for  the  support 
of  their  own  schools  but  also  in  some  degree  for 
the  support  of  the  schools  in  other  and  less 
favored  localities. 

Whatever  scheme  of  state  assistance  is  adopt- 
ed, the  importance  of  local  taxation  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools  should  be  considered.  The  moral 
support  which  a  community  gives  to  the  schools 
will  be  largely  measured  by  the  financial  support 


Legislative  Provisions  for  Organization  of  Schools    19 

it  gives.  Where  schools  are  wholly  or  largely 
supported  by  local  taxation,  there  will  be  found 
a  strong  public  interest  and  pride  in  the  schools 
whatever  their  real  merit  may  be. 

It  is  true  that  in  many  countries  like  Germany 
where  education  is  supported  largely  by  the 
state  good  schools  abound.  Indeed  it  may  be 
said  that  the  schools  are  likely  to  be  more  uni- 
formly good  in  such  countries  and  states  than  in 
countries  and  states  which  force  each  commun- 
'  ity  to  support  its  schools ;  but  in  a  country  like 
ours  founded  upon  the  idea  of  local  self  govern- 
ment it  is  fitting  that  the  central  treasury  shall 
be  used  only  when  the  given  locality  becomes 
unable  to  maintain  the  standard  necessary  for 
the  good  of  all.  In  the  long  run  too  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  schools  of  a  country  will  be  best 
whose  support  as  well  as  control  is  largely  in 
the  hands  of  those  who  are  directly  benefited. 

In  any  plan  of  local  taxation  for  either  the 
entire  or  partial  support  of  schools  there  is  likely  Equalization 
to  be  some  inequality  in  the  burden  assumed,   of  taxation 
If  it  is  assumed,  as  it  should  be,  that   all   the  needed, 
children  of  a  state  ought  to  have  as  far  as  possi- 
ble equal  opportunities,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  burden  of  support  ought  to  be  uniform  so  far 
as  it  can  be  made  so  throughout  the  state.     The 
most  just  and  equitable  plan  would  be  for  a  special 
commission  to  give  careful  consideration  to  the 
conditions  and  needs  of  every  city  and  town, 
and  to  provide  that  each  municipality  pay  toward 
the  support  of  its  schools  a  sum  in  proportion  to 
its  ability  to  pay  and  with  reference  to  its  other 


20  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

needs,  the  state  paying  the  balance  needed  to 
bring  the  schools  up  to  the  required  standard. 
Even  this  plan  could  not  be  carried  out  without 
difficulty;  for  whatever  adjustments  the  com- 
mission might  make,  they  would  l)e  subject  to 
criticism  by  jealous  communities. 


CHAPTER    III 

STATE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    SCHOOLS 

The  laws  of  a  state  relating  to  the  establish- 
ment and  maintenance  of  public  schools  must  rpj^^  duties  of 
be  administered  by  designated  boards  or  officials,  locai  school 
As  has  been  said  the  most  orderly  method  of  boards. 
administration  is  through  boards  as  far  removed 
as  possible  from  the  influence  of  politics.     The 
work  of  these  boards  of  administration  may  be 
classed  as  legislative,  executive,  and  supervisory ; 
legislative,  in  establishing  schools  and  providing 
for  their  maintenance  by  directions  and   rules 
governing  the  duties  of    all    concerned  in  the 
management  of  the  schools;  executive,  in  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  directions  and  rules  of  legis- 
lation; and  supervisory,  in  overseeing,  advising, 
and  directing  the  work  of  the  schools. 

In  a  certain  sense  the  schools  may  be  said  to 
be  town  or  city  schools,  but  in  reality  they  are  ^^^^,^10^3  ^f 
state  schools  so  long  as  they  are  established  and  local  and  state 
maintained  under  the  laws  of  the  state.     For  administration. 
the  purpose  of  securing  the  direct  interest  of  the 
people,  a  large  measure  of  the  responsibility  for 
maintaining  good  schools  should  rest  upon  the 
municipality.     While  there  should  be  little  cen- 
trahzed  authority  in  the  state,  there  are  some 
functions   which    can    best  be  perfoimed  by  a 
general  or  state  board  of  education,  assisted  by 
such  executive  and  supervisory  officers  as  may 
be  needed. 

21 


22  School  Organization  and  ^Supervision 


Present  duties 
of  state  boards 
of  education 


Reasons  for 
and  against 
centralization. 


State  board  of  (Mlucation.— Among  the  duties 
now  devolving  upon  state  boards  of  education 
in  this  countiy  may  be  named  the  following: 

(1)  having  general  charge  of  educational  in- 
terests in  the  state 

(2)  appointing^  the  state  superintendent  of 
schools 

(3)  appointing  county  superintendents  of 
schools 

(4)  having  charge  of  state  normal  schools 

(5)  prescribing  course  of  studies  for  the  public 
schools 

(6)  granting  licenses  to  teachers 

(7)  prescribing  text-books 

('>)  recommending  text-books  and  reference 
books 

(9)  settling  controversies  between  school  officers 

(10)  having  control  of  state  funds 

(11)  commissioning  high  schools  to  send  pupils 
to  the  state  university 

(12)  preparing  blank  forms  for  the  use  of 
towns 

(13)  hearing  appeals. 

The  duties  as  outlined  above  may  be  divided 
broadly  into  two  classes,  those  that  are  general 
and  those  that  are  special  and  technical.  An- 
other and  closer  view  of  the  prescribed  duties 
shows  that  to  some  boards  are  given  judicial  and 
legislative  functions,  while  others  have  only 
supervisory  or  advisory  duties  to  perform. 

If  it  is  assumed  that  local  boards  cannot 
wisely  control  such  matters  as  the  selection  of 
text-books,  making  courses  of  studies,  and  the 


State  Administration  of  Schools  23 

licensing  of  teachers,  or  if  a  full  and  prompt 
enforcement  of  the  laws  cannot  be  secured  by 
the  local  authorities,  or  again  if  centralized 
authority  in  respect  to  the  securing  of  high 
standards  of  education  is  more  to  be  trusted 
than  the  direct  will  of  the  people,  then  a  large 
measure  of  authority  and  close  direction  or 
supervision  of  the  duties  named  should  be  ex- 
ercised by  the  state  board.  But  these  assump- 
tions cannot  be  fairly  made.  Certainly  the 
principle  should  not  be  maintained  in  a  republic 
that  the  people  in  either  educational  or  political 
affairs  cannot  be  trusted.  It  is  true  that  the 
peoj)le  themselves  may  decide  that,  for  certain 
reasons,  some  measure  of  centralization  in  edu- 
cational affairs  should  be  maintained,  as  in  the 
designation  of  a  certain  standard  of  proficiency 
in  the  maintenance  of  schools.  The  question 
is  how  far  this  centralization  of  power  should  go. 
The  following  statement  (^f  powers  and  duties 
of  a  state  board  may  fairly  represent  the  medium  The  proper 
of  two  kinds  of  practice  in  this  country.     It  is  powers  and 

,  ,  ,      T        ,        ,  1      ,  , .  duties  of  a  state 

an  attempt  also  to  show  what  prerogatives  may  i,Q^y^  ^f  edu- 
be  exercised  by  the  state  board  in  its  assistance  cation. 
of  city  and  town  boards  without  unduly  impair- 
ing their  responsibility  and  authority.* 

*  The  two  states  which  represent  the  extremes 
of  power  given  to  the  state  board  of  education 
and  its  chief  executive  officers  are  perhaps  Cali- 
fornia and  Massachusetts.  In  California  the 
state  board 

(a)  adopts  rules  and  regulations  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  public  schools 


Full  control  of 
state  educa- 
tional institu- 
tions. 


24  ScJiool  Organization  and  Supervision 

1.  Full  control  of  the  normal  schools  and  other  edu- 
cational institutions  supported  wholly  by  the  state. 

The  function  of  the  normal  school  is  to  train 
teachers  needed  for  service  in  the  public  schools. 
Owing  to  the  peculiar  service  that  the  teachers 
render  the  state  and  to  the  small  remuneration 
that  they  receive  compared  with  members  of 
other  professions,  it  is  the  custom  generally  for 
the  state  to  furnish  free  tuition  to  all  normal 
school  students.  To  direct  the  expenditure  of 
money  thus  involved  and  to  establish  in  a  cer- 
tain way  the  kind  of  qualifications  needed  for 
teachers  of  the  public  schools  are  functions 
which  naturally  fall  upon  the  state  board  of 
education. 

"  Other  educational  institutions  "referred  to  as 
properly  subject  to  the  control  of  the  state  board 
are  the  schools  for  the  bhnd,  deaf  and  dumb, 
feeble-minded,  etc.  Also  schools  for  juvenile 
offenders  and  truant  schools. 


(6)  makes  rules  and  establishes  a  standard  of 
proficiency  for  the  examination  of  teachers 

(c)  prescribes  course  of  study  and  text-books 

(d)  grants  life  licenses  to  teachers  on  recom- 
mendation of  the  board  of  education  and  may 
revoke  the  same. 

In  Massachusetts  but  little  direct  authority  is 
given  to  the  state  board  bryond  having  full 
charge  of  the  normal  schools,  holding  in  trust 
gifts  and  bequests  made  for  educational  purposes, 
prescribing  the  form  of  school  registers  and  re- 
turns, holding  teachers  institutes,  and  certificat- 
ing superintendents  of  union  districts. 


State  Adnmiistration  of  Schools  25 

£.  A  partial  or  advisory  control  of  all  educational 
institutions  supported  in  part  by  the  state. 

This  provision  applies  to  private  institutions 
in  which  the  education  of  children  and  adults  is  Partial  control 
carried  on  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  such  as  ^   ^"^^^*'!  ^ 

'■  ucational  m- 

normal  schools,  reformatories,  and  schools  for  stitutions. 
defectives.  The  form  in  which  the  control  is 
effected  should  depend  upon  circumstances.  In 
some  cases  one  or  more  persons  appointed  by  the 
board  of  education  might  serve  upon  the  board 
of  managers.  In  other  cases  the  state's  inter- 
ests might  be  best  served  by  inspection  and  re- 
ports made  by  one  or  more  of  the  executive 
officials  of  the  board  of  education. 

3.    The  designation  of  a  minimum  of  qualifications 
for  all  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools. 

If  it  is  true  as  has  been  affirmed  that  "  what 
affects  for  ill  one  part  of  the  state  affects  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent   all  other  parts,"  and  if 
there  is   general   indifference   or   unwillingness  ^^  minimum 
in  some   portions   of  the   state  to  provide  good  qualifications, 
teachers,  then  there  should  be  fixed  a  minimum  to  be  deslg- 
of  qualifications  for  all  the  teachers  of  the  state,   ^ated. 
There  are  some  good  reasons  why  a  minimum 
of  qualifications  should   be   established   by  the 
state  board  of  education  rather  than  by  statute 
law.     In  the  first  place  the  standard  of  qualifi- 
cations when  set  by  a  board  is  likely  to  be  higher 
than  when  determined  by  law.  Moreover  adapta- 
tion to  the  changing  needs  of  given  communities 
may  be  made  to  a  greater  degree  by  a  board 
than  by  a  legislature. 

There  are  two  ways  of  fixing  the  qualifica- 


26  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

tioDS  of  teachers  (1)  by  setting  forth  what  the 
quahfications  shall  be,  as  for  example  gradua- 
tion from  certain  institutions;  (2)  by  examining 
all  candidates  and  decreeing  that  all  teachers 
selected  by  towns  and  cities  must  have  received 
a  certificate  of  one  or  another  grade.'- 

4.-  Nomination  of  county  or  district  superintendents  of 
schools  who  are  supported  in  full  or  in  part  by  the 
state. 

Experience  has  shown  that  in  the  election  of 
l^omination  of  superintendents   as   well  as   in   the  election  of 

county  and  dis-    ,         ,  ,    •    ,  •  i        •.  -.    , 

trict  superin-     teachers   some  restrictions  should  be  put  upon 
teudents.  the  action  of  the  local  boards  which  elect.     This 

restriction  is  especially  needed  when  the  salary 
of  the  superintendent,  in  whole  or  in  part,  is 
paid  by  the  state.  For  each  vacancy  in  the 
office  of  such  superintendent  the  state  board 
may  be  required  to  make  one  or  more  nomina- 
tions for  the  action  of  the  local  board,  or  the 
election  may  be  made  from  a  general  list  of 
candidates  approved  by  the  state  board.  + 

*  In  many  of  the  states  teachers  are  required 
to  pass  a  state  or  county  examination,  but  in 
nearly  every  case  the  standard  set  is  quite  too 
low;  so  low  that  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  for 
teachers  to  secure  positions  on  other  grounds 
than  those  of  merit.  In  Massachusetts  local 
certificates  only  are  required;  but  in  this  state 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  teachers  of  elemen- 
tary schools  have  been  professionally  trained 
either  in  a  state  normal  school  or  in  a  city  train- 
ing school.  About  the  same  proportion  of  sec- 
ondary school  teachers  are  college  graduates. 

t  In  New  Jersey,  Mississippi,  and  Virginia  the 
county  superintendent  is  appointed  by  the  state 


State  Administration  of  Schools  27 

5.  The  appointifnent  of  one  or  more  state  attendance 
officers  who  shall  act  in  conjunction  with  local  officials 
in  enforcing  school  attendance  laws. 

In  many  places  doubtless  the  local  attendance 
or  truant  officers  may  be  trusted  to  enforce  the  Appointment 
school  attendance  laws  of  the  state;  but  there  of  state  attend- 
are  some  places  of  which  that  cannot  be  said.   ^^"^^  officers. 
Even  in  the  law-abiding  towns  there  are  likely 
to  exist  circumstances  in  which  the  loc^al  officers 
need  the  support  and  co-operation  of    a  state 
official  who  can  act  independent  of  local  consid- 
erations. 

6.  The  making  and  sending  out  of  school  registers 
and  other  statistical  blanks  so  as  to  secure  a  uniform 
basis  of  statistics. 

The  need  of  uniformity  in  the  making  of  sta- 
tistics is  unquestioned,   and  this  can  be  gained  Preparation  of 
only  by  the  use  of  uniform  blanks  throughout  ^j^^l^^^^ 
the  state.     The  information  called  for  should  be 
limited  to  the  needs  of  those  who  desire  to  make 
a  comparison  of  conditions  upon  which  the  wel- 

board  of  education.  In  most  states  the  office  is 
elective,  with  meagre  educational  prerequisites  to 
eligibility. 

In  Massachusetts  the  superintendents  of  union 
districts  are  elected  by  a  joint  committee  of  local 
boards,  but  their  qualifications  are  determined  by 
the  state  board  of  education. 

In  New  York  the  school  commissioners,  who 
correspond  to  the  county  superintendents  of 
other  states  and  whose  salaries  are  paid  by  the 
state,  are  elected  by  the  people,  without  restric- 
tion as  to  qualification,  and  hence  the  office  is 
often  regarded  as  a  political  gift. 


28 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Report  to  leg- 
islature. 


The  awaken- 
ing of  public 
interest  in  ed- 
ucation. 


fare  of  the  schools  depends.  It  would  be  well  if 
a  common  form  of  statistics  could  be  agreed 
upon  for  the  entire  country.  In  another  place 
will  be  found  an  outline  of  school  statistics  care- 
fully prepared  by  a  committee  of  the  National 
Educational  association,* 

7.  The  rendering  of  a  report  to  the  legislature  re- 
specting the  condition  and  needs  of  the  public  schools 
of  the  state  and  of  all  other  educational  institidions  sup- 
ported in  full  or  in  part  by  the  state. 

Such  a  report  should  contain  tables  of  statis- 
tics gathered  from  the  various  towns  and  cities, 
together  with  such  comparisons  and  comments 
as  will  be  both  suggestive  and  helpful  to  all  con- 
cerned in  the  welfare  of  the  schools.  It  should 
also  contain  reports  of  inspectors  and  others 
authorized  to  give  actual  educational  conditions 
and  results. 

8.  The  awakening  of  a  strong  public  sentiment  among 
the  people  in  favor  of  popular  education  and  tJie  ren- 
dering of  wise  counsel  in  maintaining  the  schools  on  a 
high  standard  of  excellence. 

The  history  of  education  in  this  country  shows 
the  futility  of  making  laws  that  are  not  sup- 
ported by  pubhc  opinion.  It  can  be  shown  also 
by  experience  that  the  welfare  of  the  schools  is 
directly  promoted  by  an  enlightened  public  sen- 
timent as  to  the  purposes  and  means  of  educa- 
tion. 

9.  The  appointment  of  a  chief  executive  officer  and 
such  assistants  as  are  needed  to  carry  out  the  policy  of 
the  board. 


Appendix  D, 


State  Administration  of  Schools  29 

The  board  of  education  should  be  an  unpaid 
board,  and  its  members  cannot  therefore  be  ex-  ^^^  ^i?Y>oint- 

ment  of  execu- 

pecied   to  give  more  tmie  to  their  duties  than  tive  officers, 
will  be  needed   for  legislation.     The  executive 
details  and  the  settlement  of  questions  directly 
relating   to   teaching   must  be  in  the  hands  of 
persons  whose  time  is  given  wholl}^  to  this  work. 

State  siiperintendt^nt  of  schools  — Much  of  what 
may  be  said'in  relation  to  the  mode  of  appoint- 
ment, term  of  service,  and  duties  of  a  state 
superintendent  has  already  been  referred  to. 
The  reasons  named  for  removing  the  appoint- 
ment and  functions  of  the  state  board  of  educa- 
tion as  far  as  possible  from  the  influence  of  poli- 
tics are  even  more  potent  in  relation  to  the  ex- 
ecutive officer  of  the  board.  It  is  plainly  un- 
wise to  make  the  office  a  foot-ball  for  politicians, 
either  in  a  popular  election  or  in  an  election  by 
the  legislature.     As  has  been  said  he  should  be      esaesu- 

^  permteiideut 

appointed  by  the  board,  and,  since  it  is  wise  to  an  appointed 
separate  the  legislative  and  executive  functions  official, 
of  the  board,  he  should  not  be  a  member  of  it. 
His  term  of  service  should  be  sufficiently  long  to 
enable  him  to  acquire  wisdom  in  the  formula- 
tion and  carrying  out  of  plans,   and  his  tenure 
of  office  should  be  so  secure  as  to  make  him  free  "^^^  supcnu- 
and  independent  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  .mj  teum-e  of 
After  a  trial  service  of  a  definite  term  he  should  ^^^^^<^'^- 
be  elected  during  the  pleasure  of  the  board. 

His  duties  may  be  inferred  from  the  duties 
already  enumerated  as  belonging  to  the  board. 
Such  of  these  duties  as  need  careful  direction  or 
professional  knowledge   will   be   performed   by 


30 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Powers  and 
duties  of  the 
state  superin- 
tendent. 


him.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  all  the 
details  of  functions  belonging  to  the  board  are 
to  be  performed  either  by  the  superintendent 
directly  or  under  his  direction — the  duty  of  the 
board  being  chiefly  to  pass  upon  the  acts  of  the 
superintendent. 

He  should  be  a  man  of  liberal  education  and 
large  experience  as  an  educator  and  have  a  strong 
and  exalted  personality.  Such  assistance  should 
be  afforded  him  in  his  executive  and  clerical  du- 
ties as  will  give  him  the  largest  opportunity  to 
impress  upon  the  schools  of  the  state  his  ideas  of 
what  they  should  be.  This  he  v^rill  do  by  attend- 
ance upon  and  participation  in  county  and  other 
educational  meetings,  by  educational  addresses 
before  the  people,  by  teachers'  institutes,  in 
v^hich  the  aid  of  the  most  advanced  lecturers 
and  instructors  is  had,  by  advice  to  local  school 
boards  and  superintendents  in  their  work,  and 
by  visits  to  the  state  normal  schools. 

In  all  this  work  he  should  be  aided  by  able  as- 
sistants who  will  act  with  him  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  board. 

Besides  advising  the  state  board  in  respect  to 
its  action  as  a  board  and  carrying  out  its  require- 
ments in  relation  to  all  state  educational  insti- 
tutions, he  has  constantly  to  act  in  directing  and 
regulating  matters  relating  to  the  school  census, 
registers,  etc.,  in  tabulating  and  reporting  the 
results  of  official  inquirers,  in  advising  the  legis- 
lature as  to  the  making  of  new  laws  and  the 
changing  of  old  ones,  in  answering  personally 
and  by  letter  inquiries  in  relation  to  the  inter- 


State  Administration  of  Schools  31 

pretation  and  enforcement  of  school  laws,  in  at- 
tending and  addressing  educational  meetings, 
and  in  arousing  among  the  people  by  addresses 
and  reports  a  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  the 
schools.  If  it  is  found  advisable  to  provide  for 
the  state  examination  and  certification  of  teach- 
ers, that  duty  so  far  as  dn^ection  is  concerned 
must  devolve  upon  him,  or  upon  some  one  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose." 

*  The  present  system  of  New  York  is  in  this  re- 
spect noteworthy.  The  non-political  and  perma- 
nent board  of  regents  (see  page  12)  elects  as  its 
executive  officer  a  commissioner  of  education  for 
a  term  of  6  years  with  a  salary  of  $9,000.  He 
appoints  three  assistant  commissioners  with 
salaries  of  15,000  and  heads  of  departments  at 
salaries  of  $3,000  to  $4,000,  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  board  of  regents.  These  assistant 
commissioners  and  heads  of  departments  appoint 
their  subordinates  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
commissioner.  Thus  each  officer  has  permanent 
appointment,  with  all  needed  power  and  re- 
sponsibility. 


CHAPTER  IV 


Two  distinct 
classes  of  du- 
ties in  school 
administration 


CITY   AND    TOWN  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SCHOOLS 

The  organization  of  a  model  system  of  schools 
rests  upon  the  assumption  that  the  most  active, 
direct,  and  resi)onsible  management  must  be 
local  rather  than  centralized.  To  each  city  and 
town  belongs  the  duty  of  keeping  the  schools 
up  to  as  high  a  degree  of  excellence  as  possible, 
and  this  must  be  done  not  directly  by  the  people 
but  by  persons  duly  elected  for  the  purpose. 

The  local  school  board. — The  definition  of  gen- 
eral administrative  functions  given  elsewhere* 
may  be  applied  with  special  force  to  the  duties 
of  local  boards.  These  legislative,  executive, 
and  supervisory  functions  belong  to  two  quite 
different  and  distinct  classes  of  duties — one 
class  relating  to  financial  and  otljer  business 
matters  and  the  other  class  having  to  do  with 
matters  which,  because  of  their  technical  char- 
acter, may  be  called  professional.  For  the  good 
of  the  schools  it  is  very  important  that  there  be 
a  wise  designation  of  duties  among  all  who  are 
employed  in  their  service.  This  may  be  secured 
by  carefully  drawn  rules  stating  what  duties  shall 
be  performed  by  the  board  collectively,  what  by 
individual  members  or  sub-committees  of  the 
board,  and  what  by  appointed  officials. 


*Page  21, 


33 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       33 

The  wisdom  of  a  separation  of  functions  in 
civil  government  is  unquestioned.  This  separa- 
tion seems  all  the  more  imperative  when  the 
duties  involved  are  as  technical  as  some  of  the 
duties  of  school  administration  are.  The  exact 
line  of  separation  is  doubtless  difficult  to  define 
in  some  cases,  but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  board  should  have  general  charge  and  super- 
vision of  the  schools,  and  that  upon  it  as  a  board 
must  rest  the  responsibihty  of  making  such  pro- 
visions as  will  give  a  reasonable  assurance  of 
good  results. 

Before  an  attempt  is  made  to  determine  what 
duties  if  any  the  school  board  shall  have  outside 
of  the  general  legislative  duties  already  men- 
tioned, it  may  be  well  to  point  out  in  detail  the 
duties  which  must  be  performed  in  efficiently 
carrying  on  the  work  of  the  schools;  these  nec- 
essary duties  are 

(1)  keeping  in  repair  the  school  buildings 

(2)  providing    for    adequate    ventilation    and  gcj^ooi^a^^^ 
lighting  of  the  school-rooms  istration  out- 

(3)  purchasing  of  fuel  lined. 

(4)  purchasing  and  keeping  in  repair  the  school 
furniture 

(5)  caring  for  the  school-rooms  and  grounds 

(6)  selecting  and  purchasing  the  needed  appa- 
ratus 

(7)  selecting  and  purchasing  the  needed  text- 
books and  reference  books 

(8)  making  a  course  of  studies 

(9)  appointing   truant  officers    and  otherwise 


34 


School  Organization  and  Supervison 


Needed  limita- 
tions of  the 
powers  of 
school  boards. 


providing  for  an  enforcement  of  the  law  relating 
to  school  attendance 

(10)  appointing  the  teachprs 

(11)  inspecting  and  directing  the  work  of  the 
teachers 

(12)  classifying  and  promoting  the  pupils 

(13)  making  statistical  and  other  reports  to  the 
state  board  of  education  and  to  the  citizens  of 
the  town  or  city. 

In  determining  which  if  any  of  the  details  of 
these  duties  may  be  performed  directly  by  the 
board,  two  limitations  naturally  present  them- 
selves :  first,  that  of  a  lack  of  time  which  mem- 
bers can  give  to  minute  supervisory  and  execu- 
tive duties;  and,  secondly,  that  of  inability  to 
perform  those  duties  which  require  professional 
knowledge  and  skill.  It  must  be  assumed  that 
the  chief  attention  and  time  of  members  must 
be  given  to  their  vocation,  whatever  it  is,  and 
that  only  such  scraps  of  time  may  be  given  to 
their  official  duties  as  can  be  spared  from  the 
farm,  factory,  or  counting-room.  It  is  of  course 
conceivable  for  members  to  be  employed  in  some 
of  the  executive  details  of  school  administra- 
tion, such  as  janitor  service,  repairing  buildings, 
and  purchasing  supplies.  But  even  in  this  ser- 
vice the  questionableness  of  having  a  member  or 
sub-committee  serve  as  both  principal  and  agent 
will  readily  appear,  especially  if  compensation 
is  received  for  service  rendered. 

The  second  limitation  named,  that  of  unfit- 
ness of  the  members  to  perform  the  details  of 
administration,  applies  to  those  duties  which  are 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       35 

professional  iu  character.  Strange  to  say  this 
limitation  does  not  so  readily  appear  as  does  the 
first,  especially  to  newly  elected  members  of  a  „    .    . 

^       ir  J  J  Professional 

board.     It  is  only  at  a  comparatively  recent  date  supervision 
that  the  function  of  professional  or  skilled  super-  needed, 
vision  has  been  to  any  degree  recognized  in  this 
country  as  essential  or  even  helpful  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  schools.*     In  the  centralized  school 
systems  of  Europe,  particularly  those   of    Ger-   ' 
many,  France  and  England,  professional  super- 
vision is  as  fully  established  as  is   professional 
teaching;  while  in  those  parts  of  our  own  coun- 
try where  the  greatest  progress  in  education  has 
been  made,  the  supervision  of   the  schools  has 
been    changed   from   that    of    non- professional 
school  boards  to  that  of  superintendents  elected 
for  their  ability  to  organize  the  schools  and  direct 
the  work  of  the  teachers. 

Besides  the   superintendent  of   schools  there 
should  be  employed  by  the  board  several  execu-  Executive 
tive  officials,  whose  duties  so  far  as  they  bear  officials  of  the 
directly  upon  the  work  of  the  schools  should  be  board. 
under    the    direction    of     the    superintendent. 
These  officials  are  a  business  manager,  a  physi- 
cal director,  one  or  more  attendance  officers,  and 
one  or  more  medical  inspectors,  f 

The  advisability  of  the  appointment  of  special 
supervisors,  such  as  supervisors  of  primary 
grades,  of  drawing,  of   music,  and  of  physical 

*  For  a  brief  history  of  supervision  and  for 
plans  of  organization  see  Appendix  A. 

t  Medical  inspectors  may  be  appointed  by  the 
local  board  of  health.     See  Appendix  F. 


36 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


The  appoint- 
ment of  special 
supervisors  not 
always  desir- 
able. 


Duties  of  the 

physical 

director. 


training,  will  depend  upon  circumstances.  In 
a  large  system  of  independent  schools  or  in 
a  system  of  schools  of  any  size  in  which  a 
large  proportion  of  the  teachers  are  untrained, 
a  special  direction  of  work  upon  lines  indicated 
above  seems  desirable.  But  where  there  are 
competent  supervising  principals  and  where  the 
teachers  are  trained  as  they  should  be,  the  direc- 
tion of  work  by  special  supervisors  is  not  neces- 
sary or  even  advisable.  There  is  such  a  thing  as 
too  much  supervision  of  work,  especially  of  the 
work  of  intelligent  well-trained  teachers.  Such 
teachers  need  to  have  a  large  degree  of  freedom 
in  carrying  on  their  work,  and  abundant  oppor- 
tunity to  correlate  their  teaching  in  all  the  sub- 
jects of  the  school. 

If  upon  any  one  hne  or  department  of  subjects 
special  supervision  is  necessary  to  the  highest 
efficiency,  it  is  found  in  connection  with  the  phy- 
sical welfare  of  the  pupils.  For  want  of  a  bet- 
ter term  to  designate  the  official  who  will  assume 
this  service,  that  of  physical  director  is  named. 
His  duties  will  be  to  see  that  the  hygienic  con- 
ditions of  the  schools  are  what  they  should  be, 
and  that  the  work  and  play  of  each  individual 
pupil  are  such  as  will  secure  for  him  the  highest 
degree  of  health,  grace,  and  strength.  In  small 
systems  of  schools  he  may  also  perform  the  du- 
ties usually  performed  by  a  medical  inspector. 

Secretary  of  the  board. — The  secretary  may 
or  may  not  be  a  member  of  the  board.  His 
duties  should  be  those  ordinarily  performed  by 
such  an  official,  such  as  recording  the  proceed- 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       37 

ings  of  the  board  in  a  permanent  record  book, 
calling  special  meetings,  notifying  members  of  ^"**^^  ^^  *^® 
the  board  of.  all  meetings,  notifying  each  execu- 
tive officer  and  each  member  of  a  committee  of 
his  appointment,  preserving  files  of  communica- 
tions and  documents  belonging  to  the  board,  fur- 
nishing all  teachers  appointed  by  the  board  with 
certificates  of  their  qualifications  and  appoint- 
ment, and  preparing  school  returns  called  for  by 
the  national  Bureau  of  Education  or  state  board 
of  education. 

Sub-committees. — There  is  a  tendency  in  most 
school  boards  to  make  the  number  of  sub-com- 
mittees unduly  great.  The  rule  should  be  fol- 
lowed of  having  sub-committees  only  for  busi- 
ness which  cannot  be  well  done  by  the  full  Fewsub-com- 
board,  and  which  it  is  not  wise  to  leave  fully  in  mittees needed. 
the  hands  of  the  superintendent  or  any  other 
executive  officer.  A  committee  on  finance  may 
be  necessary  to  approve  bills  and  audit  the  ac- 
counts ;  also  to  recommend  appropriations  from 
carefully  made  estimates.  A  committee  on 
school-houses  should  have  in  charge  all  matters  * 
relating  to  the  erection  and  alteration  of  school- 
houses  ;  such  a  committee  might  also  nominate 
the  janitors  and  supervise  their  work.  A  com- 
mittee on  furniture  and  supplies  should  have  in 
charge  the  purchase,  change,  and  alteration  of 
school  furniture;  also  the  purchase,  care,  and 
distribution  of  all  supplies,  including  text-books, 
reference  books,  stationery,  etc.  A  committee 
on  text- books  and  course  of  studies  should  pass 
in  review  the  recommendations  of  the  superin- 


38 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


The  necessity 
of  clearly  de- 
fined duties. 


Construction 
and  care  of 
buildings. 


tendent  respecting  text-books  and  the  course  of 
studies,  and  report  to  the  board. 

It  is  beheved  that  to  the  above-ilamed  com- 
mittees all  business  may  be  committed  that  can- 
not be  performed  by  the  executive  officers  of  the 
board  or  by  special  committees.  Certainly  no 
sub-committee  should  be  appointed  which  will 
in  any  way  arrogate  to  itself  duties  or  functions 
which  belong  to  the  superintendent  or  any  other 
executive  officer.  These  officials  ought  to  be 
held  responsible  for  the  efficient  performance  of 
certain  clearly  defined  duties,  and  in  such  per- 
formance there  should  be  no  divided  responsi- 
bility. 

The  superintendent  of  schools. — The  superin- 
tendent is  the  chief  executive  and  advisory  officer 
of  the  board,  employed  as  an  expert  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  teaching  and  training  of  chil- 
dren. The  division  line  already  hinted  at  be- 
tween the  duties  of  such  an  expert  and  those  of 
the  board  and  other  officials  should  be  clearly 
defined,  in  the  interests  both  of  economy  and  of 
the  welfare  of  the  schools. 

In  the  construction,  permanent  repairs,  and 
care  of  school  buildings  there  is  needed  profes- 
sional advice  which  relates  to  the  convenience  of 
the  school  and  the  health  of  the  pupils.  This 
advice  should  be  given  by  the  superintendent, 
matters  of  detail  being  left  to  others. 

In  matters  of  equipment,  which  includes  every- 
thing that  is  needed  to  carry  on  the  schools,  the 
superintendent's  advice  should  be  given  respect- 
ing the  kind  and  quantity  desired.     So   far  as 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       39 

furniture  and  furnishings  are  concerned,  his  ad- 
vice may  or  may  not  be  followed  by  the  board;  School  equip- 
but  in  respect  to  text  and  reference  books  the  ^^^  ' 
prerogative  of  the  superintendent  should  extend 
so  far  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  any  books  to 
be  selected  in  opposition  to  his  recommendation. 
Needed  apparatus  and  ordinary  supplies  should 
be  ordered  under  the  direction  of  the  superin- 
tendent, either  by  the  teachers  or  by  an  agent 
appointed  for  the  purpose.  Their  distribution 
should  be  provided  for  in  other  ways  than  by 
the  superintendent's  personal  care.  It  is  poor 
economy  to  give  the  work  of  an  expressman  or 
errand  boy  to  a  highly  paid  official.  In  country 
districts,  however,  where  the  schools  are  far 
apart,  some  of  the  work  of  distribution  may  be 
done  by  the  superintendent  with  little  loss  of 
time  on  his  part. 

In  all  the  work  of  supervision,  no  greater  degree 
of  technical  or  professional  work  is  needed  any-  course  of 
where  than  in  the  making  of  a  course  of  studies,  studies. 
and  the  superintendent  alone  should  do  it,  or  be 
responsible  for  it.  For  reasons  of  protection 
against  possible  contingencies,  the  course  should 
be  ratified  by  the  board,  but  no  additions  or 
omissions  should  be  made  without  the  superin- 
tendent's sanction.  The  course  of  studies  is  to 
teaching  what  the  mariner's  chart  is  to  naviga- 
tion, and  no  unprofessional  hand^should  tamper 
with  it. 

Full  power  should  be  given  to  the  superintend- 
ent to  nominate  teachers,  and,  when  elected,  to 
assign  them  to  the  schools  in  which  they  are  to 


40  School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Nomination 
and  direction 
of  teachers. 


Suspension 
and  dismissal 
of  teachers. 


Classification 
and  promotion 
of  pupils. 


teach.  Power  also  should  be  given  him  to  fill 
temporary  vacancies  by  substitute  teachers. 
He  should  inspect  and  examine  the  schools  fre- 
quently, and  make  such  suggestions  to  teachers 
concerning  teaching  and  disciphne  as  will  assist 
them  in  their  work.  These  suggestions  may  be 
made  to  teachers  individually  or  to  them  collect- 
ively in  teachers'  meetings,  which  he  should  have 
power  to  call.  Sometimes  the  suggestions  will 
need  to  be  made  by  class  recitations  conducted 
by  the  superintendent  or  by  some  one  whom  he 
appoints. 

The  function  of  suspending  and  dismissing 
teachers,  as  well  as  of  electing  them,  should  be 
performed  by  the  school  board  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  superintendent.  Good  rea- 
sons are  assigned  for  giving  the  power  to  sus- 
pend and  dismiss  teachers  to  the  superintend- 
ent ;  but  the  reasons  for  withholding  that  power 
from  him  and  for  putting  it  alone  in  the 
hands  of  the  committee  are  strong  enough,  at 
least,  to  make  doubtful  the  policy  of  the  as- 
sumption by  the  superintendent  of  the  full  power 
either  to  suspend  or  dismiss  teachers. 

By  a  knowledge  of  pupils  gained  through  in- 
spection and  examination  and  by  the  advice  of 
teachers,  he  should  arrange  for  the  proper  classi- 
fication and  promotion  of  pupils.  For  such  im- 
portant functions  he  alone  should  be  responsible. 
Only  in  this  way  can  be  avoided  the  mistakes  of 
the  varying  standards  of  teachers'  judgment 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  pressure  upon  school 
boards  for  unmerited  promotions  on  the  other. 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       41 

Wise  plans  should  be  made  by  the  superintend- 
ent for  the  placing  of  each  pupil  at  any  time 
where  he  can  do  the  most  for  himself. 

Aid  through  counsel  and  active  support  should 
be  given  by  the  superintendent  to  the  school 
committee,  teachers,  and  attendance  officers  for  School  attend- 
the  securing  of  punctual  and  regular  attendance  ^^^^' 
of  pupils  at  school.  He  should  promptly  report 
all  violations  of  the  law  relating  to  school  at- 
tendance and  help  in  its  proper  enforcement. 
For  the  possible  protection  of  the  superintendent 
from  thoughtless  attacks  of  offended  parties, 
the  school  board  should  assume  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  enforcement  of  any  rule  relating 
to  excuses  for  absence  and  the  suspension  or 
dismissal  of  pupils. 

The  superintendent's  duty  to  the  people  and 
patrons  of  the  schools  cannot  be  set  forth  in 
formal  phrase.  By  all  ways  in  his  power  he  is 
to  keep  up  an  enlightened  public  sentiment  in  .^j^'Jj  mtrons 
regard  to  the  schools,  and  to  aid  in  fostering  a 
cordial  co-operation  on  the  part  of  all  who  have 
any  part  in  their  maintenance.  By  reports,  pub: 
lie  addesses,  parents'  conferences,  newspaper 
articles  and  private  conversation  he  is  honestly 
and  fearlessly  to  tell  the  truth  as  to  the  needs  of 
the  schools  and  express  the  hopes  and  plans  he 
has  for  their  improvement. 

In  circumstances  where  the  superintendent 
cannot  attend  to  details,  as  in  cities  or  large 
areas  of  schools,  he  may  delegate  certain  duties 
to  principals  of  schools  or  other  teachers,  hold- 
ing them  to  the  same  responsibility  which  he 


42 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Details  to  be 
delegated. 


Character  of 
rules  needed. 


Rules  to  be 
adopted  gov- 
erning the 
powers  and 
duties  of  the  su- 
perintendent. 


assumes  to  the  school  board.  In  a  system 
of  schools  which  requires  much  clerical  work, 
that  work  should  be  done  by  a  clerk,  so  as  to 
allow  the  superintendent  all  the  time  possible  for 
professional  duties.  To  avoid  any  misunder- 
standing, carefully  prepared  rules  should  be 
adopted  by  the  board,  defining  the  duties  of 
the  superintendent  in  all  important  features  of 
his  work,  and  giving  him  the  largest  freedom 
consistent  with  a  proper  recognition  of  the  rights 
and  responsibilities  of  the  school  board. 

The  following  rules  embody  recommendations 
and  suggestions  relating  to  the  duties  of  a  super- 
intendent of  schools.  They  may  serve  as  a  basis 
for  the  rules  of  school  boards  which  are  will- 
ing to  put  so  large  a  part  of  the  direct  work  of 
the  schools  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent. 

RULES    RELATING   TO   THE   DUTIES   OF   THE   SUPER- 
INTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS 

1.  General  powers. — It  is  the  province  of  the 
superintendent  to  manage  and  direct  the  work 
of  instruction  and  training  in  the  schools,  and 
to  advise  in  all  other  matters  which  have  any 
relation  to  such  work. 

2.  School  buildings. — In  all  work  of  construc- 
tion and  alteration  of  school  buildings  the  super- 
intendent shall  advise  respecting  matters  which 
relate  to  the  convenience  of  the  school  and 
health  of  the  pupils. 

3.  School  equipment. — He  shall  advise  as  to 
the  kind  and  quantity  of  furniture  and  furnish- 
ings needed  for  each  school.  He  shall  also  recom- 
mend all  text-books  and  reference  books  that 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       4:3 

are  needed,  and  no  book  shall  be  selected  by  the 
board  in  opposition  to  his  recommendation. 
Apparatus  and  ordinary  supplies  within  the  ap- 
propriation made  by  the  board  for  that  purpose 
may  be  ordered  under  his  direction  as  they  are 
needed. 

4-.  Course  of  studies. — He  shall  prepare  and 
recommend  to  the  board  for  adoption  a  course  of 
studies  for  the  schools,  and  any  changes  that  he 
may  from  time  to  time  deem  advisable.  No 
course  of  studies  or  any  part  of  a  course  shall  be 
adopted  without  the  sanction  of  the  superin- 
tendent. 

5.  Teachers. — It  shall  be  the  prerogative  of 
the  superintendent  to  recommend  suitable  per- 
sons for  positions  as  teachers,  and  the  board 
shall  elect  no  teacher  not  recommended  by  the 
superintendent.  He  shall  assign  to  places  all 
teachers  elected  by  the  board,  and  transfer  teach- 
ers from  one  school  to  another  whenever  in  his 
opinion  such  transfer  will  secure  greater  effi- 
ciency in  the  schools. 

He  shall  fill  all  vacancies  occasioned  by  the 
absence  of  teachers,  and  recommend  to  the 
board  the  suspension  or  dismissal  of  any  teacher, 
whenever  in  his  judgment  such  suspension  or 
dismissal  is  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  schools. 

He  shall  inspect  and  examine  the  schools  fre- 
quently, and  make  such  suggestions  to  teachers 
as  will  assist  them  in  their  work.  He  shall  at 
proper  times  hold  meetings  of  teachers  for  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  principles  and  methods  of  school 
work,  and  shall  at  his  discretion  give  permis- 


4:4:  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

siou  to  teachers  to  attend  teachers'  conventions 
or  institutes  and  to  visit  schools. 

6.  Pupils. — The  superintendent  shall  arrange 
for  the  proper  classification  and  promotion  of 
pupils,  with  the  sole  object  of  placing  each  pupil 
at  any  time  where  he  can  do  the  most  for  him- 
self. He  shall  excuse  any  pupil  from  pursuing 
one  or  more  subjects  of  study  and  from  attend- 
ing school  a  portion  of  the  time,  whenever  in 
his  judgment  the  best  interests  of  the  pupil  are 
served  by  such  action.  He  shall  pass  judgment 
in  the  case  of  suspended  pupils,  either  returning 
them  to  the  schools  or  reporting  them  to  the 
school  board,  with  such  recommendations  as  he 
may  see  fit  to  make. 

7.  Meetings  of  the  hoard. — He  shall  attend  all 
meetings  of  the  board,  and  have  the  privilege  of 
speaking  upon  any  question  before  it,  but  not  of 
voting.  Opportunity  shall  be  given  him  at  each 
regular  meeting  to  make  a  report  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  schools,  and  to  present  recommen- 
dations for  its  action. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  foreging  rules  do 
not  refer  to  the  minor  details  of  the  superintend- 
ent's duties,  such  as  keeping  needed  records  of  his 
office,  ringing  the  bell  for  no  session  of  the 
schools,  and  providing  for  the  transfer  of  pupils. 
Nor  are  those  duties  mentioned  which  he  is  re- 
quired bv  law  to  do,  such  as  excusing  cases  of 

of  supermten-  ",  „  i       -,         -,     •       ■  ^       ^ 

(jgQt.  necessary  absence  from  school  and  signmg  school 

attendance  blanks.  All  these  and  other  duties 
are  either  understood  or  may  be  defined  at  any 
time  by  special  vote  of   the  board.     Moreover, 


Other  duties 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       45 

the  proposed  rules  do  not  hedge  him  about  with 
requirements  and  restrictions  as  to  the  precise 
manner  in  which  he  shall  spend  his  time. 
The  rules  should  be  made  upon  the  presumption 
that  the  superintendent  is  a  person  of  ability, 
common  sense,  and  integrity.  If  he  is  wanting 
in  any  one  of  these  necessary  virtues,  no  rules 
will  make  him  what  he  ought  to  be,  and  no 
rules  ought  to  be  necessary  to  show  to  the  com- 
mittee his  unfitness  for  the  work. 

The  question  may  be  raised  whether  the  pow- 
ers and  duties  of  a  superintendent  of  schools,  as  School  super- 
outlined  above,  fairly  or  fully  meet  the  needs  of  ^.j^igg 
supervision  in  the  large  cities.  It  has  been  as- 
sumed in  recent  years  that  such  cities  present 
difficulties  which  cannot  be  met  by  means  ordi- 
narily used  in  smaller  cities.  So  strong  is  this 
feeling  in  some  cities,  that  a  radical  change  of 
school  administration  is  advocated  by  earnest 
reformers. 

No  doubt  the  form  of  the  superintendent's 
work  should  vary  somewhat  with  the  number  of 
schools  he  has  to  care  for;  but  it  is  a  serious 
question  whether  the  great  extent  of  his  work 
should  lessen  the  professional  character  of  it. 
"With  the  assistance  that  ought  to  be  given,  and 
conditions  of  freedom  from  politics,  there  is  no 
more  reason  why  a  superintendent  of  a  large 
system  of  schools  should  be  engrossed  in  unpro- 
fessional administrative  details  than  the  super- 
intendent of  a  small  system.  The  chief  differ- 
ence lies  in  the  amount  of  work  delegated  to 
others.     There  is  needed  the  same  professional 


46 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Professional 
supervision 
needed  for  ali 


A  business 
manager 
needed  in 
cities  and 
large  towns. 


knowledge  to  properly  direct  the  work  in  both 
positions,  and  the  responsibility,  though  differing 
in  amount,  does  not  materially  differ  in  kind. 

With  a  v^ery  small  system  of  schools  the 
superintendent  personally  directs  the  teachers 
and  attends  to  the  few  needed  matters  of  busi- 
ness. In  a  small  city  system  he  should  have 
the  aid  of  a  clerk  to  attend  to  business  details, 
and  supervising  princpals  and  special  teachers 
to  whom  he  can  delegate  certain  supervisory 
duties.  In  a  larger  system  he  should,  in  addi- 
tion to  these  helpers,  have  one  or  more  assistant 
superintendents  to  whose  charge  certain  grades 
or  kinds  of  work  should  be  committed.  In  all 
these  relations  the  superintendent  ought  to  have 
a  clear  professional  policy,  and  see  that  it  is  car- 
ried out.  It  is  believed,  therefore,  that  the  func- 
tions here  defined  might  well  be  exercised  by 
superintendents  in  any  system  of  schools. 
They  at  least  may  serve  as  a  basis  or  guide  for 
that  division  of  functions  and  responsibilities 
between  a  school  board  and  the  superintendent 
which  is  necessary  to  harmonious  relations  and 
the  most  effective  service. 

Business  manager. — As  has  been  said,  the 
superintendent  in  rural  towns  may  to  a  limited 
extent  attend  to  small  matters  of  business,  such 
as  buying  and  distributing  needed  school  sup- 
plies and  looking  after  the  care  of  the  buildings. 
In  such  towns  also  the  school  board  may  very 
properly  put  certain  local  matters  of  business,  like 
attending  to  repairs  and  furnishing  supplies, 
into  the  hands  of   individual  members;  but  in 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       47 

the  cities  and  larger  towns  these  and  other  busi- 
ness matters  should  be  performed  by  a  responsi- 
ble person  known  as  agent  or  business  manager. 
The  duties  assigned  should  not  be  such  as  will 
in  any  degree  conflict  with  the  duties  of  other 
officials  or  in  any  way  defer  giving  attention  to 
immediate  needs.  Among  the  duties  belonging 
to  such  an  official  might  be 

(1)  attending  to  all  needed  repairs  of  buildings 

(2)  purchasing,  distributing  and  caring  for  all 
books,  apparatus  and  other  supplies  furnished 
for  the  use  of  the  schools 

(3)  keeping  all  necessary  accounts 

(4)  supervising  and  directing  the  work  of  jani- 
tors 

(5)  preparing  the  pay-rolls  of  all  persons  regu- 
larly employed  by  the  board 

(6)  attending  to  all  matters  relating  to  the  tui- 
tion of  out  of  town  pupils 

(7)  taking  the  school  census  required  by  law. 
Some  of  these  duties  will  be  performed  under 

the  direction  of  the  superintendent,  some  under 
the  direction  of  sub-committees,  and  some  under 
the  direction  of  the  board  itself.  The  business 
manager  should  however  have  a  large  measure 
of  freedom  given  to  him,  and  be  held  responsible 
for  results  only. 

Atteiidance  officers. — The  election  by  the  board 
of  one  or  more  attendance  officers  ought  to  be 
required  by  law,  to  see  that  the  school  attend- 
ance laws  of  the  state  are  properly  observed, 
and  to  encourage  in  all  possible  ways  regular 
and  punctual  school  attendance. 


48  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

The  rules  governing    their  duties  should   be 

T^llP   VlllP^  orOV- 

erning  the'du-  ^^'^®^  ^^^  explicit.  The  following  rules  will  per- 
ties  of  attend-  haps  meet  the  needs  of  cities  and  large  towns. 
ance  officers,      jn  small  towns  the  rules  may  be  less  elaborate. 

1.  Annually  at  a  meeting  in  June  the  board 
shall  elect  the  attendance  officers  and  fix  their 
salaries. 

2.  They  shall  devote  as  much  of  their  time 
as  is  needed  to  the  duties  of  their  office,*  and 
shall  enforce  all  ordinances  and  laws  in  relation 
to  truant  children,  absentees  from  school,  and 
such  children  as  persistently  disobey  the  rules 
of  the  school. 

3.  They  shall  visit  such  schools  as  the  superin- 
tendent may  designate  at  least  once  a  day,  and 
upon  request  of  a  teacher  duly  made  upon  cards 
provided  for  the  purpose  and  countersigned  by 
the  principal  they  shall  investigate  the  absence 
of  any  child  thought  to  be  a  truant  and  take 
such  action  as  they  may  think  proper. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  attendance  officers 
to  co-operate  with  the  superintendent  and  teach- 
ers in  their  efforts  to  secure  a  regular  and 
punctual  attendance  of  the  pupils  at  school,  by 
frequent  visitations  in  the  homes  of  pupils  most 
inclined  to  disobey  the  laws  relating  to  school 
attendance. 

5.  They  shall  visit  and  inspect  each  month 
while  the  schools  are   in   session  all   factories, 

*  In  some  places  only  one  of  the  attendance 
officers  needs  to  give  his  full  time  to  the  duties 
of  his  office,  the  others  being  called  upon  only 
as  occasion  may  require. 


City  and  Town  Adnmiistration  of  Schools       49 

workshops,  and  mercantile  establishments  in 
their  respective  districts,  and  ascertain  if  there 
is  any  violation  of  the  public  statutes  relating 
to  the  employment  of  children  therein.^ 

6.  They  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  cases  of 
truancy  and  other  violations  of  the  public  stat- 
utes relating  to  school  attendance,  shov^ing  the 
name,  age,  and  residence  of  the  offender,  and 
the  nature  of  his  offence.  They  shall  make  a 
monthly  report  in  writing  to  the  superintendent. 

Medical  inspectors. — Experience  has  shown  the 
value  of  the  service  of  a  close  inspection  of  the 
schools  with  the  view  not  only  of  detecting  the 
symptoms  of  contagious  diseases  and  thus  of 
preventing  their  spread,  but  also  of  preserving  The  duties  of 
conditions  of  health.     At  a  comparatively  small  medical  mspec- 

1        .    .  ,  tors. 

expense  one  or  more  physicians  may  be  ap- 
pointed by  either  the  school  board  or  the  board  of 
health,  whose  duty  it  will  be  to  call  each  morn- 
ing at  the  school  to  see  if  there  are  any  pupils 
who  in  the  estimation  of  the  teacher  should  be 
examined  with  reference  to  determining  whether 
they  are  too  unwell  to  remain  in  school.  Pupils 
sent  home  on  account  of  ill  health  may  be  given 
a  properly  filled  blank  stating  the  reason  of  the 
physician's    action    and    his   recommendation. f 

*  This  rule  is  suggested  as  suitable  for  all 
states  which  require  certificates  of  school  at- 
tendance to  be  given  for  children  up  to  a  certain 
age.  The  rule  may  be  equally  needed  in  states 
which  forbid  children  of  a  certain  age  to  work 
in  any  of  the  establishments  named. 

fThe  examiner's  recommendation  should  re- 
fer simply  to  the  need  of  consulting  the  family 


50  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

If  the  presence  of  a  contagious  disease  is 
suspected,  attention  may  at  once  be  given  to  it 
by  the  board  of  health,  so  as  to  prevent  its 
spreading.  In  case  of  serious  trouble  with  the 
sight  or  hearing  of  a  pupil,  advice  to  the  parent 
may  be  given,  or  action  which  will  help  to  re- 
move the  trouble  may  be  taken  by  the  teacher 
under  the  direction  of  the  inspector. 

In  a  large  graded  school  system  one  inspector 
will  be  needed  for  two  or  three  buildings  having 
from  twenty  to  forty  teachers.  In  country 
towns  the  difficulties  of  adequate  inspection  are 
greater  than  in  cities  and  large  towns,  but  they 
are  not  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  carrying  out 
of  a  modified  plan  by  which  each  school  may 
have  from  the  inspector  one  or  two  visits  a  week. 
Some  of  the  details  of  medical  inspection  as  car- 
ried on  in  various  places  of  this  country  are  given 
in  Appendix  F. 

Meetings  of  the  board. — From  what  has  been 
said,  it  will  be  seen  that  most  of  the  duties  of 
the  school  board  are  performed  in  its  legislative 
ings  of  the  capacity  at  regularly  called  meetings.  The  des- 
board.  patch  and    efficiency  of   its   action  will  depend 

in  a  large  degree  upon  the  order  of  business,  and 
the  rules  governing  the  discussion  of  matters 
presented.  The  following  order  of  business  is 
suggested  as  a  good  one  to  follow.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  most  important   matters  are   as- 

physician.  No  treatment  should  be  recom- 
mended or  any  statement  be  made  that  might 
lead  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the  examiner's 
motive. 


Order  of  busi- 
ness in  meet- 


City  and  Town  Administration  of  Schools       51 

signed  first,  upon  the  theory  that  such  matters 
will  receive  the  most  attention. 

1.  Reading  the  minutes  of  the  last  meeting. 

2.  Report  of  the  superintendent.* 

3.  Action  upon  the  recommendations  of  the 
superintendent. 

4.  Reports  of  standing  committees  and  action 
thereon. 

5.  Reports  of  special  committees  and  action 
thereon. 

6.  Unfinished  business. 

7.  New  business. 

*  This  report  will  include  a  report  of  what  has 
occurred  since  the  last  meeting  or  of  existing 
conditions,  together  with  suggestions  and  recom- 
mendations for  action  of  the  board. 


CHAPTER  V 

DISTRICT   AND   COUNTY   ADMINISTRATION   OF 
SCHOOLS 

Thus  far  in  the  discussion  of  local  school  ad- 
ministration  the   presupposed   conditions   have 
Difference  in     been  those   of   urban  communities.     It   should 
the  conditions    j^q^  l3g  forgotten  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
of  school  maui-        i       i        r.     ,  i  ,  •    i    •       -,  ^ 

tenance  schools  of    the    country    are  mamtamed   under 

conditions  quite  different  from  those  which  are 
found  in  cities  and  large  towns,  and  that  parts 
of  the  organization  of  the  two  classes  of  schools 
must  be  somewhat  differently  adjusted.  It  is 
important  however  that  the  principles  of  ad- 
ministration already  defined  shall  be  applied  as 
far  as  possible  to  all  classes  of  schools.  These 
principles  are: 

-V    (a)  separation  of  the  schools  from  politics 
■   )  (6)  a  well  balanced  adjustment  of  centrahzed 
and  local  authority 

(c)  a  large  degree  of  dependence  upon  local 
financial  support 

{d)  a  separation  of  professional  and  business 
functions  in  administration. 

To  meet  the  needs  of  the  smaller  rural  towns, 
laws  should  be  passed  enabling  towns  to  combine 
in  districts  for  purposes  of  supervision.  By  this 
plan  a  union  of  two  or  more  towns  may  be 
formed,  with  such  provision  for  the  support  of 
a  superintendent  of  schools  as  will  be  needed  to 

53 


District  and  County  Administration  of  Schools     53 

iDsure  local  interest  and  effort  on  the  one  hand      \   ^   ^ 
and  efficiency  of  supervision  on  the  other.     Such  ^^^°  ^°^  ^^^^' 

,  -11  '       i    •    .       r.  -11  '  lug  the  country 

a  plan  will  not  intertere  with  the  proposed  or-  towns  for  pur- 
ganization  of  local  school  boards,  which  will  have  poses  of  school 
the  general  charge  and  supervision  of  the  schools  supervision. 
in  their  respective  towns.     The  members  of  all 
the  boards  included  in  the  supervisory  district  or 
delegates    representing   them   will   meet    when 
necessary  for  the  purpose  of  electing  a  superin- 
tendent, of  apportioning  his  time  for  the  towns, 
and  of  fixing  his  salary.* 

The  superintendent  will  be  subject  to  the 
board  of  each  town  in  which  he  is  employed. 
For  example  if,  in  a  district  of  three  towns,  the 
superintendent  is  expected  to  serve  in  the  town 
of  A  two-fifths  of  his  time,  he  will  spend  two 
days  a  week  in  that  town  and  while  there  will 
act  under  the  rules  of  the  school  board  of  A, 
subject  of  course  to  such  general  statutory  pro- 
visions as  govern  the  duties  of  a  superintendent. 
In  the  towns  of  B  and  C  his  time  and  duties 
will  be  controlled  in  the  same  way.  His  general 
plan  of  supervision,  including  the  making  of  a 
course  of  studies,  inspection  of  schools,  and  the 
conducting  of  teachers'  meetings,  may  be  largely 
the  same  in  all  the  towns,  but  each  town  board 

*  After  a  probationary  period  the  tenure  of  the 
superintendent's  office  like  that  of  the  teacher 
should  be  permanent. 

For  obvious  reasons  a  minimum  salary  for 
the  superintendent  should  be  fixed  by  law,  and 
should  be  large  enough  to  attract  to  the  office  the 
best  teachers. 


54  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

will   have  its   separate   organization  and  deter- 
mine its  own  administrative  policy. « 

There  should  be  prescribed  by  law  a  maximum 
and  a  minimum  number  of  schools  in  a  district. 
Experience  shows  that,  in  country  districts 
where  distances  between  the  schools  are  great 
and  where  a  good  proportion-  of  the  teachers  are 
untrained,  there  should  not  be  over  fifty  schools 
or  teachers  under  one  superintendent.  The 
minimum  limit  might  be  placed  at  twenty-five 
or  thirty.  If  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  in- 
sure the  employment  of  trained  and  skilled 
teachers,  the  maximum  and  minimum  limits 
may  be  considerably  greater.* 

In  states  where  the  support  of  schools  is 
chiefly  local,  it  may  be  necessary  for  towns  to 
receive  aid  from  the  state  in  bearing  the  expense 
i/'  /^  of  this  form  of  supervision;  but  such  aid  should 
\  .('  depend  upon  the  sustained  effort  of  the  towns 
themselves.  It  might  be  a  wise  provision  of  the 
law  to  oblige  towns  to  provide  for  the  payment 
of  one-half  of  the  superintendent's  salary,  with 
the  further  provision  that  the  amount  raised  for 

*  In  the  country  districts  of  Germany  and 
France  the  number  of  teachers  for  each  super- 
visor is  much  greater  than  the  number  indicated 
above.  The  successful  maintenance  of  large 
supervisory  districts  in  these  countries  is  due 
partly  to  the  fact  that  the  teachers  are  well 
trained  and  do  not  need  the  supervision  required 
for  untrained  teachers.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  Austria  and  Switzerland.  In  New  York  the 
commissioner  of  education.  Dr.  Andrew  S.  Dra- 
per, has  recently  recommended  the  substitution 
of  a  system  like  that  here  outlined. 


/ 


District  mid  County  Administration  of  Schools     55 

each  school  by  local  taxation  be  kept  up  to  the 
average  of  the  preceding  three  years.* 

In  any  plan  of  district  supervision  regulated 
by  law  and  supported  in  part  by  the  state,  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  the  election  of  com- 
petent persons  to  the  office  of  superintendent. 
If  the  selection  is  left  to  the  towns  without  any 
restrictions  whatever,  mistakes  are  are  hkely  to 
to  be  made,  for  in  some  of  the  districts  there 
may  be  either  a  degree  of  indifference  as  to  the 
competence  of  the  person  employed  or  ignorance 
as  to  the  qualifications  which  ought  to  be 
demanded  in  a  superintendent.  In  the  plan  of 
supervision  here  outlined  for  country  towns  it 
might  be  well  either  to  establish  by  law  a  mini- 
mum of  qualifications  for  the  superinten^dent  or 
to  place  certain  restrictions  upon  the  local  board. 
Perhaps  as  effective  a  way  as  any  to  reach  the 
desired  end  would  be  to  limit  the  selection  of 
superintendents  supported  in  part  by  the  state 
to  candidates  approved  by  the  state  board  of 
education.! 

The  above  plan  can  be  carried  out  only  where 
the  town  or  township  is  made  the  unit  of  gov- 
ernment. In  most  parts  of  this  country  the 
county  has  been  made  the  unit  for  purposes  of 

*  For  a  detailed  statement  of  the  practical 
working  of  this  plan  of  supervision,  see  Ap- 
pendix B. 

t  For  some  reference  to  the  eligibility  of  dis- 
trict and  county  superintendents  see  pp.  26,  27. 
See  also  Dexter's  History  of  Education  in  the 
United  States,  p.  198,  and  Draper's  Supervision 
of  Country  Schools. 


56  School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Prevailing 
methods  of 
county  super- 
vision ineffec- 
tive. 


A  plan  of 
county  super- 
vision sug- 
gested. 


school  administratiou,  largely  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  in  those  sections  the  county  is  the 
dominant  political  unit.  Apart  from  ease  in 
the  adoption  of  means  already  employed  for 
other  purposes,  there  is  little  to  be  said  in  favor 
of  prevailing  plans  of  county  school  administra- 
tion. In  the  degree  of  local  educational  interest 
and  effort  and  in  the  efficiency  of  school  super- 
vision the  county  plan  is  far  inferior  to  that  of 
the  city  or  town.  There  is  no  good  reason  how- 
ever why,  with  some  modification  of  the  present 
county  organization,  there  cannot  be  enjoyed 
the  same  privileges  as  are  now  enjoyed  in  sepa- 
rate municipalities.  The  following  plan  is  sug- 
gested as  a  basis  of  county  organization  for  an 
effective  administration  of  schools. 

Let  the  county  elect  a  single  board  consisting 
of  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  members  to 
represent  all  parts  of  the  county.  The  number 
of  members  constituting  the  board  may  be  a 
multiple  of  three,  so  that  the  term  of  office  may 
be  three  years,  one-third  of  the  membership  ex- 
piring every  year.  The  powers  and  duties  of 
the  board  may  be  essentially  the  same  as  those 
which  have  been  defined  for  municipal  boards, 
with  the  possible  difference  of  some  increased 
powers  for  members  of  the  county  board  in  re- 
spect to  the  external  affairs  of  the  schools  in  their 
immediate  neighborhood.  The  size  of  the  county 
and  the  difficulty  of  travel  will  make  it  incon- 
venient to  have  frequent  meetings  of  the  board, 
and  therefore  certain  duties  usually  performed 


District  and  County  Administration  of  Schools     57 

by  a  municipal  board  or  by  a  sub -committee  may 
fall  upon  individual  members. 

The  board  will  elect  a  superintendent  of 
schools,  who  will  have  the  same  powers  and 
duties  as  have  been  defined  for  city  and  town 
superintendents.  If  the  county  is  large  he 
ought  to  have  one  or  more  assistants.  Fifty 
rural  school  rooms  or  one  hundred  city  or  village 
rooms  are  as  many  as  one  person  should  be  ex- 
pected to  supervise,  unless,  as  in  large  cities, 
there  are  supervising  principals ;  in  which  case 
two  or  three  hundred  schools  might  be  in  charge 
of  one  supervisor. 

The  support  of  all  the  schools  of  the  county 
except  that  which  is  afforded  by  the  state  will 
be  by  taxation.  The  money  raised  will  be  dis- 
tributed by  the  county  board  to  the  various 
schools  according  to  their  conditions  and  needs. 
It  is  understood  that  the  proposed  plan  applies 
alike  to  those  counties  which  have  cities  and  large 
towns  in  them  and  to  those  which  have  only  a 
sparsely  settled  population.  Wealthy  centres 
should  assist  in  the  support  of  schools  situated 
in  sections  not  able  to  raise  by  taxation  a  sum 
needed  for  maintaining  good  schools. 

The  plan  above  outlined  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  which  is  followed  in  several  coun- 
ties of  the  South  and  West.'*  As  will  be  seen 
it  involves  an  organization  quite  simple  in  char- 
acter, one  that  can  be  easily  introduced  in  place 

*  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  working  of 
this  plan  in  one  of  the  counties  of  Georgia. 
See  Appendix  B. 


58  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

of  the  present  prevailing  plan.  It  is  generally 
best  in  effecting  reforms  to  build  upon  existing 
practices,  but  in  many  of  the  county  systems 
a  reorganization  upon  new  lines  will  be  neces- 
sary, so  far  at  least  as  to  make  the  superintend- 
ent a  professional  rather  than  a  political  official. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  SUPERINTENDENT   AS  ORGANIZER 

In  general  the  duties  of  a  superintendent  of 
schools  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those 
of  an  organizer  and  those  of  a  supervisor.  His 
duties  as  organizer  require'  him  to  get  and  to 
keep  all  parts  of  the  school  system  in  good 
working  order.  The  parts  in  relation  to  the 
direct  work  of  the  schools  are  the  school  build- 
ings and  furnishings;  the  departments,  grades, 
subjects  of  study  and  times;  the  school  board, 
superintendent,  teachers,  and .  janitors.  These 
parts  of  the  school  system  are  to  be  so  adjusted 
in  relation  to  one  another  that  the  ends  for 
which  the  schools  are  organized  may  be  most 
effectively  attained. 

The  subjects  of  school  organization  to  be  con- 
sidered somewhat  in  detail  are : 

(1)  the  construction  and  furnishing  of  school 
buildings 

^^,       ,        1      ,,        ,  ,  T    ,.  .      ,     T         school  organ- 

(2)  school  attendance  and  gradation,  mcludmg  jzation  to  be 
(a)  -age  of  admission  (6)  length  of  course  considered. 

(3)  course  of  studies,  including  (a)  subjects 
of  instruction  (6)  elective  studies  (c)  correlation 
of  studies  (d)  time  limits  (e)  making  of  school 
programme  .    - 

(4)  classification  and  promotion  of  pupils 

(5)  departmental  instruction 

(6)  special  school  classes 

59 


Features  of 


60 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


School  build- 
ings and  their 
equipment, 


(7)  the  qualifications  aud  appointment  of 
teachers 

(8)  text-books  and  supphes. 

Some  of  the  above  mentioned  features  of 
school  organization  are  controlled  wholly  by  the 
superintendent  and  some  are  made  the  subject 
only  of  advice  on  his  part;  but  whatever  his 
relation  to  them  may  be,  it  is  necessary  for  him 
to  have  as  full  knowledge  as  possible  of  their 
nature  and  use,  both  in  theory  and  in  practice. 

The  construction  and  furnishing  of  school  build- 
ings.— If  the  relation  of  the  superintendent  to 
the  external  conditions  of  the  schools  is  as 
close  and  responsible  as  is  assumed  in  Chapter 
IV,  it  follows  that  he  should  have  a  definite 
knowledge  of  what  is  most  desired  for  health 
and  convenience  in  the  way  of  buildings  and 
their  equipment.  Of  course  in  respect  both  to 
ideals  and  to  the  method  of  securing  them  he  will 
be  guided  by  circumstances.  What  will  be  suit- 
able and  desirable  in  one  place  will  be  altogether 
impracticable  in  another.  But  in  all  places  the 
superintendent  should  remember  that  providing 
the  material  means  of  carrying  on  the  schools 
is  not  his  chief  business,  and  must  not  monopo- 
lize his  time.  He  should  in  the  planning  and 
construction  of  school  buildings  give  prompt  as- 
sistance to  building  committees,  and  in  the  fur- 
nishing of  equipment  of  every  kind  he  should 
do  aU  in  his  power  to  provide  an  ample  supply. 

In  the  construction  of  school  buildings  three 
considerations  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind : 

(a)  health  of  teachers  and  pupils  ' 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  61 

(6)  convenience  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 
schools 

(c)  economy. 

Emphasis  is  placed  here  upon  the  first  two  of 
these  considerations  in  the  belief  that  building 
committees  look  to  the  superintendent  mainly 
for  assistance  in  these  directions. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  an  architect 
should  be  employed  to  draught  plans  and  oversee  An  architect 
the  work  of  construction  of  school  buildings,  needed. 
One  who  makes  a  careful  study  of  school  archi- 
tecture is  likely  to  provide  all  that  health,  con- 
venience, and  good  taste  demand,  to  a  far  greater 
'degree  of  satisfaction  than  a  carpenter  or  a 
building  committee  can  provide  without  such 
help.* 

School  buildings  should  in  no  case  be  more 
than  three  stories  high.  In  the  country  they  ^i^''giitc)f 
should  consist  of  but  one  or  two  stories.  A  j^^g 
cellar  should  be  under  the  entire  building,  and 
be  thoroughly  ventilated.  It  should  be  cemented 
throughout,  and  be  so  arranged  that  it  may  be 
used  in  cold  and  stormy  weather  for  boys'  and 
girls'  playrooms. 

The  lower  floor  of  the  building  should  be  not 

1  ±1  ^^-1  1  ji  o  r.,T        Construction 

less  than  18  mches   above  the   surface  of  the  of  fi„ois  and 
lot,  and   the   walls   should   contain   vertical  air  ceilings, 
chambers.     The  floors  of  the  schoolroom  should 

*  In  Massachusetts,  plans  and  specifications  of 
proposed  school  buildings  must  be  approved  by 
an  inspector  of  factories  and  public  buildings. 
The  same  official  is  also  required  by  law  to  inspect 
school  buildings,  with  authority  to  correct  ex- 
isting defects  of  sanitation. 


62 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Size  of  school 
room. 


Furniture  and 
furnishings. 


be  of  hard- wood,  kilii  dried  boards  not  over  four 
or  five  inches  wide,  fitted  so  close  as  to  permit 
no  cracks  in  which  dirt  can  settle.  The  floors 
should  be  so  built  as  to  permit  the  least  possible 
vibration  and  transmission  of  sounds.  Double 
floors  with  heavy  building  paper  or  mineral  wool 
between  them  will  help  to  accomplish  the  desired 
end.* 

The  schoolrooms  should  be  large  enough  to 
allow  enough  single  desks  to  be  placed  hi  them 
to  accommodate  the  largest  number  of  pupils 
likely  to  be  in  attendance,  and  to  give  space  for 
recitation  seats  and  extra  tables.  They  should 
be  large  enough  also  for  games  and  gymnastic 
exercises,  especially  if  there  is  no  gymnasium  or 
playroom  in  the  building,  f 

The  furniture  and  furnishings  of  schoolrooms 
should  be  such  as  are  needed  for  convenience 
and  efficiency.  Besides  desks  and  seats  of  suit- 
able construction  the  following  articles  should 
be  provided  for  every  schoolroom ;  teacher's  desk 
having  several  drawers,  book-case,  chairs  for 
teacher  and  visitors,  one  or  more  tables,  crayons, 
erasers,  pointers,  clock,  bell,  thermometer,  broom, 
ink-filler,  dustpan,  dusters  (^soft  pieces  of  cloth 
are  the  best  dusters),  waste-basket,  suitable  wall 

*  Floors  consisting  of  narrow  boards  or  blocks 
of  wood  in  cement  have  been  found  very  satis- 
factory. They  are  described  in  Burgenstein's 
Handbuch  der  Schtdhygieue,  Jena,  1895.  See 
also  Kotelmann's  School  Hygiene,  Syracuse, 
1S99,  pp.   95-100. 

t  Other  features  of  schoolhouse  construction 
are  given  in  Appendix  F. 


Kind  and 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  63 

pictures,  and  (if  there  is  no  dressing-room)  toilet 
appliances.  Some  schoolrooms  should  have  in 
addition  to  the  above-named  articles  a  moulding- 
table,  and  a  piano  or  organ. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  apparatus  used  in 
teaching  indicate  in  no  small  degree  the  charac- 
ter of  work  done.  It  is  not  always  desirable  to  paratus 
purchase  apparatus  which  is  the  most  costly,  needed. 
Indeed  much  of  the  most  valuable  apparatus 
used  may  be  made  or  gathered  by  the  teachers 
and  pupils,  especially  that  which  is  needed  in 
the  observation  lessons.  Charts  of  any  kind 
can  be  made  of  thick  manilla  paper,  marked 
with  artist's  crayon  or  with  a  rubber  pen.  The 
following  list  comprises  the  minimum  amount 
which  should  be  found  in  every  primary  school- 
room, or  at  least  which  should  be  accessible  to 
every  teacher. 

Blocks,  splints,  and  shoe-pegs  for  number  and 
"busy  work";  measures  (dry,  liquid,  linear, 
metric) ;  balance ;  toy  money ;  globe ;  wall  maps ; 
charts  for  number,  reading,  writing,  anatomy, 
and  music;  numeral  frame;  drawing  models, 
and  compasses ;  toys  and  other  objects  for  read- 
ing; forms  for  mensuration;  pictures  for  lan- 
guage, geography,  and  history;  cardboard  for 
number,  language,  etc. ;  colored  worsted ;  col- 
ored cardboard  for  form  and  number;  plants; 
minerals;  mounted  insects;  pen-holders,  and 
pens,  lead-pencils,  and  paper  of  various  kinds; 
ruler. 

If  slates  are  used  (paper  is  better),  good  slates, 
sharpened  pencils,  sponges  and  coarse  files  should 


64  School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Duration  of 
school  course 
in  America. 


Practice  in 
England. 


be  provided.  Among  the  materials  for  ''  busy 
work  ' '  may  be  mentioned  paper  for  folding  and 
weaving,  sticks  and  splints  for  laying,  forms  of 
animals  and  other  objects  for  tracing,  letters  for 
making  words,  words  for  making  sentences, 
designs  upon  cardboard  for  drawing. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  above  list  does  not 
comprise  some  of  the  means  of  teaching  physi- 
ology and  other  observation  lessons  which  may 
be  gathered  from  day  to  day,  such  as  flowers, 
leaves,  and  plants.  Neither  does  the  list  include 
the  little  devices  used  for  illustrating  the  men- 
suration of  boxes,  walls,  etc.,  nor  any  of  the 
tools  and  materials  used  for  the  industrial  work 
carried  on  in  all  the  grades. 

School  attendance  and  gradation.  —  Practice 
varies  in  America  as  to  the  earliest  age  of  admit- 
ting children  into  the  school  and  also  as  to  the 
length  of  the  course. 

In  most  places  where  the  earhest  age  of  admis- 
sion is  6  years,  the  length  of  the  elementary 
course  is  8  years,  and  where  the  earliest  age  is  5 
years,  the  course  is  generally  9  years  in  length. 
Exceptions  to  this  are  found  in  towns  and  cities 
whose  elementary  course  is  8  years  in  length  for 
pupils  who  are  permitted  to  enter  school  at  5 
years  of  age.  It  should  be  said  that  in  all  places 
where  the  earliest  permitted  age  of  admission  is 
5  years,  the  actual  average  age  of  the  admission 
of  pupils  into  the  lowest  grade  is  much  higher. 

In  the  public  elementary  schools  of  England 
children  may  begin  at  3  years  of  age  and  must 
begin  at  5,  remaining  in  the  infants'  school  un- 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  65 

til  the  age  of  7.     The  length  of  the  subsequent 
course  is  7  years. 

In  France  and  Germany  the  earliest  age  of  ad-  „      .     . 

•      •         ,      .1  •  11-  -,   .-,        Practice  m 

mission  to  the  primary  school  is  6  years,  and  the  France  and 
length  of  the  elementary  course  is  from  6  to  8  Germanj'. 
years.  In  France,  however,  nearly  half  of  all 
the  children  from  2  to  6  years  of  age  are  en- 
rolled in  the  mother  schools  {ecoles  maternelles), 
or  lower  primary  "classes  (classes  enfantines). 
Many  cities  of  Germany  and  of  this  country 
also  provide  for  children  under  the  age  of  6  in 
the  public  kindergarten. 

It  is  possible  that  the  differences  in  this  coun- 
try in  the  earliest  age  of  admission  to  the  ele- 
mentary schools  and  in  the  length  of  the  course 
of  such  schools  will  disappear  when  the  kinder- 
garten becomes  universally  a  part  of  the  public 
school  system.  It  may  be  fairly  questioned, 
however,  in  any   event,    whether  much   of  the  "     "  -P"'"^'3 

'  *'  '  course  advis- 

formal  intellectual  work  now  carried  on  in  many  able. 
first  year  primary  classes  should  be  demanded  of 
children  before  the  age  of  6.  If,  where  chil- 
dren are  permitted  to  enter  school  at  5,  a  sub- 
primary  course  could  be  pursued,  consisting 
largely  of  manual  and  observation  exercises, 
advancement  in  subsequent  work  would  be 
likely  to  be  quite  as  rapid  as  it  is  at  present 
where  pupils  are  required  to  read  and  write 
much  during  the  first  year.  In  case  there  is  a 
kindergarten  course  which  children  can  begin  at 
3  or  4  years  of  age,  the  work  of  the  sub-primary 
class  could  be  supplementary  to  the  work  of  the 
kindergarten  and  be   preparatory  for  the  more 


66  School   Organization  and  Supervision 

formal  work  of  the  primary  school.  According 
to  many  of  oar  best  kindergartners  and  primary 
school  teachers  some  connection  between  the  two 
schools  is  very  much  to  be  desired.  Further  de- 
tails of  the  proposed  plan  will  be  given  later  in 
connection  with  the  course  of  studies. 

Whether  the  kindergarten  or  sub-primary 
Children  not  courses  are  offered  or  not,  it  is  doubtful  if  pupils 
to  begin  formal  yhould  begin  regular  formal  school  work  under 
six^  ears  of  ^^^®  ^S®  ^^  ^-  While  the  work  pursued  in  the 
age.  sub-primary   class   should   be  closely  connected 

with  the  course  pursued  in  the  following  year 
and  be  a  preparation  for  that  course,  it  should 
not  be  a  necessary  preparation.  That  is,  pupils 
of  6  years  of  age  and  upwards  who  have  never 
attended  school  should  enter  the  lowest  grade  of 
the  primary  school  without  taking  the  prepara- 
tory work  of  the  sub-primary  class.  The  pres- 
ent classification  in  most  places  obliges  pupils  of 
all  ages  who  have  not  attended  school  to  begin 
the  primary  reading  and  number  work  together. 
Such  work  is  found  as  discouragingly  hard  to 
some  as  it  is  demoralizingly  eas}^  to  others. 
If  the  regular  elementary  school  work  begins 
Elementary  for  children  of  6  years  of  age,  it  should  be  no 
course  to  cover  j^-^Q^e  than  can  be  easily  performed  in  8  years  by 
eig  t  yeais.  average  pupils.  Some  of  the  pupils  will  be  able 
to  finish  the  course  in  0  or  7  years,  enabling 
them  to  be  ready  for  the  high  school  at  12  or  13 
years  of  age.  But  as  these  instances  of  early 
preparation  are  offset  by  instances  of  late  en- 
trance upon  the   elementary  school  course,  the 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  67 

average  age  of  graduation  from  that  course  is 
not  likely  to  be  less  than  li  years. 

On  some  accounts  it  will  be  found  convenient  „,     ,.  .  . 

llie  division 

to   separate   the   elementary   school  pupils  into  li^e  between 
primary   and    grammar    grades.     The   division  primary  and 
line  between  these  two  kinds  of  schools  varies  in  grammar 
present  practice,  some   of  the   primary   schools 
covering   2    years'    work,    others    covering    the 
work  of  3  and  4  years. 

One  natural  and  well  recognized  method  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  grammar  school  course  from  the 
primary  is  on  lines  of  proficiency  in  what  may  be 
called  the  mechanics  of  the  two  sequential  sub- 
jects of  reading  and  arithmetic.  As  soon  as  the 
pupils  are  able  to  read  at  sight  any  ordinary  sec- 
ond reader  and  to  work  with  a  fair  degree  of  facil- 
ity in  the  four  fundamental  rules  of  arithmetic, 
they  ought  to  be  ready  for  some  formal  study  in 
geography  and  other  information  subjects.  This 
division  line  might  be  placed  at  the  end  of  three 
years,  although  doubtless  many  pupils  could 
reach  it  at  the  end  of  two  years.  By  such  an  ar- 
rangement the  course  would  be  arranged  as  fol- 
lows: primary  school  3  years,  grammar  schools 
years,  and  high  school  -i  years.  There  are  good 
reasons  for  dividing  the  entire  course  into  three 
equal  parts,  giving  four  years  to  the  primary 
school,  four  years  to  the  grammar  school,  and 
four  years  to  the  high  school.  Again,  much  can 
be  said  in  favor  of  dividing  the  course  of  12 
years  into  two  parts  and  of  considering  the  high 
school  work  to  cover  (3  years. 

The  subject  of  length  of  grades  will  be  consid- 


68 


School   Organization  and  Supervision 


A  course  of 
studies  advis- 
able. 


The  course 
should  not  be 
too  minute. 


ered  later  under  the  head  of  Classification  and 
Promotion  of  Pupils. 

Course  of  studies. — There  is  some  danger  of 
exaggerating  the  importance  of  a  course  of 
studies.  As  men  can  not  be  made  good  by  any 
amount  of  legislation,  so  the  work  of  teachers 
can  not  be  made  effective  by  the  mere  directions 
of  a  course  of  studies — be  they  ever  so  wise. 
There  are  good  schools  with  poor  courses  of 
studies  or  even  with  no  courses  at  all,  just  as 
there  are  poor  schools  with  very  excellent  courses. 

But  while  the  teacher  always  and  everywhere 
makes  the  school,  the  advisability  of  placing  be- 
fore him  a  guide  as  to  subjects  and  times  can  not 
be  questioned.  It  is  better  however  for  the 
superintendent  not  to  make  a  too  radical  change 
in  the  course  at  first  and  not  to  make  any  course 
before  the  school  conditions  are  well  understood. 
Either  the  general  outline  of  the  state  course  or 
the  existing  local  course  may  for  a  time  at  least 
be  used  as  a  basis  of  work,  supplemented  by  di- 
rections and  suggestions  which  may  be  given 
either  by  special  written  bulletins  or  at  the  regu- 
lar monthly  or  bi-monthly  teachers'  meetings. 
If  circumstances  permit  it  will  be  advisable  to 
limit  the  positive  directions  of  the  course  to  a 
statement  of  the  subjects  in  general  that  should 
be  taken  up  in  given  periods. 

Certainly  it  is  not  wise  to  put  before  the  teach- 
ers a  detailed  statement  of  all  they  are  expected 
to  accomplish  during  fixed  periods  of  time. 
Some  courses  even  go  so  far  as  to  point  out  the 
exact  pages  of  the  text  books  which  are  to  be 


The   Superirdendent  as   Organizer  69 

gone  over  in  a  given  period,  the  presumption  be- 
ing that  the  topics  included  in  those  pages  will 
constitute  the  entire  work  of  all  the  pupils. 
Such  courses  are  made  upon  the  assumption  that 
every  pupil  will  accomplish  as  much  as  every 
other  pupil  and  no  more.  The  leveling  system 
is  complete  where  examinations  for  promotions 
based  upon  these  requirements  are  given  by  some 
one  other  than  the  teacher. 

The  course  of  studies  should  aid  the  teacher  in 
adapting  the  instruction  to  individual  pupils;  and  Obstacles  to 
it  will  do  so  best  by  giving  to  teachers  a  large  ^'"^  teacher's 

success. 

measure  of  freedom  in  the  selection  of  material. 
The  excessively  large  numl)er  of  pupils  to  a  teach- 
er found  in  most  schools  renders  it  impossible  to 
accomplish  the  results  of  adaptation  in  any 
degree  satisfactory  to  the  best  teachers.  The 
brighter  and  quicker  pupils  as  well  as  the  duller 
and  slower  ones,  are  not  reached  in  the  way  they 
should  be  reached.  The  present  customary 
plan  of  keeping  together  for  long  periods  all 
the  pupils  of  a  large  class  upon  the  same  kind 
of  work  is  harmful  alike  to  the  quicker  and 
to  the  slower  pupils;  to  the  former  in  the  undue 
suppression  and  lack  of  stimulation  to  healthful 
effort,  and  to  the  latter  in  discouragement  and 
superficialness. 

A  course  of  studies  is  intended  as  a  guide  in 
determining 

(CD  the   subjects  of  instruction  that  shall  be  <'|'"™te"s«^« 
^  ■'  of  a  course  of 

pursued  studies. 

(6)  the    time — both    relative    and    absolute — 
which  shall  be  given  to  the  various  subjects 


70 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Two  theories 
of  an  element- 
ary school 
course. 


(c)  the  order  in  which  the  subjects  and  parts 
of  subjects  shall  be  presented  and  reviewed 

(c?)  the  distribution  of  subjects  that  shall  be 
made  in  the  programme  in  respect  both  to  a 
proper  correlation  of  studies  and  to  the  teaching 
force  of  the  school. 

Subjects  of  instruction.  — Two  widely  opposing 
theories  prevail  respecting  the  number  and  kind 
of  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools.  Some  would  have  the  curriculum  con- 
fined to  a  few  subjects,  scarcely  more  than  the 
three  R's;  others  advise  the  extension  of  the 
course  so  as  to  include  many  subjects  which  are 
sometimes  begun  in  the  high  sfchool.  The  advo- 
cates of  a  limited  programme  urge  the  necessity 
of  thoroughness  in  the  branches  studied,  partly 
it  may  be  supposed  on  account  of  the  mental 
habit  formed.  They  also  plead  for  what  are 
called  essential  subjects,  presumably  because 
these  subjects  are  deemed  more  practical  than 
others.  Those  who  believe  in  the  extended 
courses  say  that  the  nature  of  young  children 
will  not  permit  an  exhaustive  study  of  any  one 
branch,  but  that  it  demands  studios  which  will 
yield  a  large  number  of  facts  relating  to  many 
subjects.  In  this  way,  they  argue,  the  mind  is 
made  to  have  a  substantial  basis  for  subsequent 
study  and  for  a  many-sided  interest  which  is 
essential  to  good  scholarship  and  intelligent 
living. 

There  is  wisdom  in  both  of  these  views  and 
the  selection  of  studies  should  be  made  with 
both  views   in   mind.     Tuat  the  curriculum  of 


The  essentials 
of  a  good 
course. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  71 

the  elementary  schools  should  include  the  sub- 
jects ordinarily  pursued  in  such  schools  is  beyond 
question.     These  include  reading,  writing,  lan- 
guage,    arithmetic,     geography,     history,     and 
grammar.     Other    subjects — drawing,    singing, 
physiology,  and  elementary  science — are  coming 
to  be  reckoned  among  the  essentials   of  a  good 
course.     In  many  states  these  subjects  are  pur- 
sued in  a  majority  of  the  schools,  and  in  some  of 
the  states  they  are  required  by  law  to  be  taught.  Doubtful  sub- 
The  only  remaining  subjects  the  wisdom  of  whose  3'^^*^  ^^^'  s^'^^- 
adoption  in  the  elementary  couise  is  either  denied  ™^^  ^^  °°  ^' 
or  doubted  by  a  large  number  of  educators  are 
algebra,    geometry,    industrial   training,   and   a 
foreign  language. 

There  are  two  avenues  of  approach  to  the  set- 
tlement of  all  mooted  questions,  the  avenue  of  "^^^^  ^.^^^  "^ 
reason  and  philosophy,  and  that  of  experience.   whatTubjects 
We  can  point  to  each  of  the  doubtful  subjects  should  be 
of  study  and  ask  from  the  standpoint  of  culture  offered. 
and   discipline  or  of  direct  use  in  life   why  it 
ought  to  have  a  place  in  the  course  of  studies ;  or 
w^e  can  appeal  to  the  experience  of  thoughtful 
people  who  have  practically  tested  the  value  of 
each  of  the  subjects  taught.     It  would  not  be 
difficult  to  show  the  reasonableness  of  including 
algebra  and  geometry  in  the   grammar   school 
programme,  both  on  account  of  their  practical 
value  as  aids  in  the  solution  of  every  day  prob- 
lems, and   by  reason  of  their  use  as  a  means  of 

,    ,     T      .    ,.  rni  1  1     ^         Theories  of  a 

mental  disciplme.     The  same  mav  be  said  of  a  ,..,.o,„„„„. 

-■-  "^  ill  clLIilllcll 

foreign  language.     The   increased  power  which  school  curncu- 
one  possesses  in  an  ability  to  read  and  speak  in  '""^  discussed. 


72  School  Organization  and  Supervison 

a  language  other  than  one's  own  is  undoubted. 
And  when  we  see  how  readily  a  foreign  language 
is  learned  during  the  period  of  childhood  and 
early  youth,  it  seems  an  inexcusable  neglect  not  to 
provide  the  opportunity  for  its  study  in  the  gram- 
mar school.  There  remains  but  one  of  the  doubt- 
ful subjects  to  be  considered  and  that  is  indus- 
trial training.  If  it  is  true  that  education  should 
prepare  for  vocational  as  well  as  for  social  and 
civil  life,  and  if  it  is  true  also  that  in  the  train- 
ing of  the  hand  there  is  a  training  of  the  intel- 
lect and  the  will,  we  must  conclude  that  hand 
training  of  some  kind  should  have  a  place  in  all 
grades  of  the  elementary  school. 

So  much  for  theory.  What  shall  we  say  of 
the  result  of  practice  in  teaching  these  subjects 
in  elementary  grades  ?  In  many  of  the  private 
Results  of  ex-  schools  of  this  country  some  of  the  doubtful 
perience  in  pri-  subjects  named  are  taught  to  pupils  of  grammar 
school  age.  The  fact  that  this  practice  has  pre- 
vailed for  many  years  is  in  itself  evidence  of  its 
value.  It  is  said  in  justification  of  making  a 
difference  of  programmes  in  private  and  public 
schools  that  the  patrons  of  private  schools  are 
from  a  more  cultured  class  than  are  those  of  the 
public  schools,  and  that  therefore  the  higher 
studies  may  be  begun  earlier.  It  may  be  said 
in  reply  that  in  this  country  there  should  be  no 
recognition  of  a  difference  of  classes  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  system  of  public  education.  What 
is  good  for  the  so-called  "  upper  class  "  must  be 
good  for  all  classes  and  all  should  have  as  far  as 
possible  an  equal  chance. 


vate  schools. 


The  Superintendent  as   Organizer  73 

Again  it  is  said  that  the  number  of  pupils  to 
a  teacher   in   private   schools   is   comparatively  choice  of  sub- 
small  and  that  hence  the  conditions  there  are  jects  not  to  de- 
more  favorable  to  the  pursuit  of   an   extended  P^"*^  "P'^'^ 

, ,  •       J 1  IT  1        1  r<         1.1        size  of  classes. 

course  than  m  the  public  schools.  Surely  the 
wisdom  of  a  choice  of  studies  at  a  given  time 
should  not  depend  upon  the  size  of  classes. 
If  constructive  geometry,  for  example,  is  a 
profitable  study  for  a  class  of  three  pupils 
of  a  given  age,  it  ought  to  be  profitable  for  a 
class  of  thirty  of  the  same  age.  Besides  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  number  of  pupils  to  a 
teacher  in  the  public  schools  will  in  the  future 
be  nearer  the  standard  set  by  the  best  private 
schools  than  it  is  at  present. 

But  experience  with  an  extended  curriculum  is 
not  confined  to  private  schools.  It  is  well- 
known  that  a  large  number  of  grammar  schools 
throughout  the  country  include  in  their  subjects  pei^igncc  in 
of  study  geometry,  algebra,  and  a  foreign  Ian-  public  schools. 
guage.  The  testimony  of  persons  best  qualified 
to  judge  the  results  of  this  experience  seems  to 
be  convincing,  so  far  at  least  as  the  usefulness 
and  desirability  of  including  some  sul)jects  in 
the  cuniculum  of  elementary  schools  which  have 
hitherto  been  begun  in  the  high  school."^' 

How  far  such  extension  .of  the  elementary 
school  curriculum  should  be  carried  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  way  in  which  the  subjects  are 
taught    or    in   what    aspects    the    various    sub- 

*  For  detailed  testimony  respecting  the  value 
of  an  extended  curriculum  for  elementary  schools 
see  Appendix  G. 


74:  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

jects  are  presented.  As  we  come  to  know  the 
Choice  of  sub-  choices  and  capacities  of  pupils,  we  find  that 
jects  to  depend  breadth  rather  than  depth  of  knowledge  is 
upon  the  way  needed  in  the  earher  grades,  and  that  the  ele- 

they  are  pre-  ^  ' 

sented.  ments  of  any  subject  may  fittingly  be  presented 

to  young  children.  But  the  mistake  must  not 
be  made  of  anticipating  the  child's  mental 
growth  by  presenting  as  a  science  or  as  philoso- 
phy what  ought  to  be  matters  of  observation  or 
fact.  The  present  sharp  division  line  between 
the  grammar  school  course  and  the  high  school 
course  niay  be  eliminated  by  an  extension  of  the 
high  school  studies  into  the  lower  grades,  but 
the  existing  difficulty  will  be  greatly  enhanced 
if  these  studies  are  brought  down  in  their  pres- 
ent form.  Such  an  extension  of  studies  instead 
of  enrichment  would  be  impoverishment  and 
waste. 

Again,  in  choosing  subjects  of  instruction  for 
the  elementary  school  course,  the  difficulty  of  a 

How  the  diffi-    multiplicity  of  studies  must  not  be  overlooked. 

CUlties  of  mul-    ci       £  ij.-  £  ^    •      ^       :\  ^    •       J.  •  l^ 

t  piicitv  are  to  ^^         ^^  ^  correlation  01  kmdred  subjects,  either 
be  met.  in  the  course  of  studies  or  in  the  teaching,  can 

help  to  meet  the  difficulty  it  should  be  made 
And  finally,  the  immediate  as  well  as  ultimate 
and  general  needs  of  the  children  should  be  met 
so  far  as  circumstances  will  permit.  While  it 
is  true  that  the  education  of  children  and  youth 
should  be  rounded  off  at  every  stage,  and  that 
what  is  proper  preparation  for  a  higher  grade  of 
instruction  should  be  a  proper  preparation  for 
life,  it  is  also  true  that  a  differentiation  of  studies 
somewhere  in  the  course,  according  to  the  tastes 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  75 

and  needs  of  pupils,  may  be  highly  desirable 
whenever  it  can  be  done  without  detriment  to 
the  best  interests  of  the  schools. 

With  tliese  limitations  and  with  the  condition 
that  good  teachers  are  employed,  it  is  safe  to  say  Pi^^pei-  sub- 
that  all  of  the  hitherto  mentioned  studies,   in-  ^^^^^  °*  ^ 

'  grammar 

eluding  algebra,  geometry,  industrial  training,   school  course. 
and  one  foreign  language  should  have  a  place  in 
the  grammar  school  curriculum. 

Acknowledging  that  some  study  of  a  foreign 
language  is  desirable  in  the  grammar  school,  we 
may  be  at  some  loss  to  determine  which  lan- 
guage it  shall  be.  Doubtless  the  selection  in 
some  instances  should  depend  upon  circum-  a  modern  lan- 
stances ;  thus  in  a  community  where  there  are  a  g^age  pre- 
number  of  French  or  Spanish  speaking  people  *'"*^  ' 
one  or  the  other  of  these  languages  should  be 
taught ;  or  if  there  are  teachers  of  Latin  close  at 
hand  and  no  one  that  can  teach  a  modern  lan- 
guage, Latin  will  naturally  be  the  language 
taught ;  but  if  there  are  no  local  or  incidental 
reasons  for  a  choice,  there  would  seem  to  be 
more  good  reasons  for  choosing  a  modern  lan- 
guage than  for  choosing  an  ancient  one.  If  the 
study  of  it  is  begun  early  in  the  grammar  school 
course  and  continued  to  the  end  of  it,  a  good 
reading  and  speaking  knowledge  of  the  language 
may  be  gained,  even  though  it  be  pursued  with 
moderation. 

The  sul)jects  offered  in  high  schools  are  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  demands  of  the  colleges 
and  higher  technical  schools.  It  is  feared  that 
too  often  these  demands  determine  the  subjects 


76 


School   Organization  and  Supervision 


College  re- 
quirements 
not  to  domin- 
ate the  high 
school  course. 


Present  plan 
of  electives 
in  German 
and  American 
high  schools. 


of  study  not  only  of  the  pupils  who  intend  to 
enter  the  higher  institutions  but  also  of  that 
larger  class  of  pupils  who  pass  from  the  high 
school  directly  to  their  life  work.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  gr-eatest  care  should  be  taken 
lest  the  zeal  to  conform  to  college  preparatory  re- 
quirements force  wrong  standards  upon  pupils 
whose  school  life  ends  with  the  high  school.  It 
is  the  latter  class  of  pupils  therefore  that  must 
be  kept  specially  in  mind  in  making  up  a  high 
school  programme.  Such  studies  as  physical 
geography,  English  literature,  English  composi- 
tion, history,  physics,  physiology  and  hygiene 
should  receive  special  attention,  or  at  least  be 
offered  in  liberal  measure.  Manual  or  industrial 
training  also  should  have  a  large  place  in  some 
of  the  courses  of  the  high  school.  This  empha- 
sis upon  important  subjects  does  not  preclude 
proper  attention  to  foreign  languages,  mathe- 
matics, and  the  .various  sciences. 

Elective  studies. — There  has  come  to  be  felt  in 
this  country  the  necessity  of  offering  a  plan  of 
studies  for  high  schools  in  which  the  privilege 
of  choice  is  given  in  the  selection  of  some  of  the 
subjects  of  study.  In  Germany  the  selection  is 
made  by  schools,  each  kind  of  school  having  a 
fixed  curriculum.  Here  the  plan  generally 
adopted  is  that  of  arranging  the  studies  in 
groups  or  courses  and  giving  the  pupils  the  privi- 
lege of  choosing  the  course  they  wish  to  take. 

In  the  larger  schools  there  are  usually  two  or 
more  electives  offered  in  each  course,  the  number 
of  electives  increasing  year  by  year.     In  a  few 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  77 

schools  the  practice  prevails  of  giving  the  privi- 
lege of  selection  from  a  widely  extended  list  of 
subjects. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  of  the  sub- 
jects offered  in  high  schools  should  be  elective. 

-n/r  IT  fji  -I  ji  iiTio'^  medium 

Many  would  go  further  and  say  that  the  list  of  p].^^  recom- 

subjects  offered  should  be   very  extensive   and  mended. 

that  all  of  the  subjects  taken  by  a  pupil  should 

be  elective.     Perhaps  a  medium  plan    may   be 

safely  followed  of  offering  a  number  of  courses — 

from  two  to  five,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the 

school;  and  of  permittiug  each  pupil  to  select  all 

but    one    or    two    branches.      These    required 

branches  might  be  English,  including  literature 

composition,  etc. ;  and  history.   Great  care  should 

be  taken  in  the  selection  of  subjects.     A  good 

plan  is  for  advice  to  be  given  by  the  teachers  to 

the  parents  and  for  cards  to  be  issued  asking  that 

a  selection  be  indicated  by  a  parent  or  guardian. 

It  has  been  generally  assumed  that  the  sub- 
jects pursued  in  grades  below  the  high  school 
are  subjects  needed  for  all  pupils,  unmindful  of 
their  expected  career,  and  that  therefore  such 
subjects  should  be  made  obligatory  in  these 
grades.  But  the  introduction  of  new  studies 
into  the  grammar  school  course  has  brought  up 
again  the  question  of  carrying  the  elective  sys- 
tem below  the  high  school  so  far  at  least  as  the 
new  studies  are  concerned. 

There  seems  little  question  of  requiring  all  the 
pupils  below  the  high  school  to  pursue  the  ordi- 
nary English  branches — reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  and  history.     Alge))ra,  geome- 


mar  schools. 


A  foreign  lan- 


78  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

try,  and  book  keeping  may  well  be  taken  with 
Kequired  sub-  arithmetic  in  the  higher  grades,  or  at  times  be 
iects  in  gram-  required  in  place  of  it.  To  pupils  who  are  not 
going  beyond  the  grammar  school  algebra  and 
geometry  may  seem  a  waste  of  time  and  energy^ 
but  in  their  practical  bearings  they  are  equally 
useful  to  all  and  hence  may  properly  be  included 
in  the  required  subjects.  Drawing,  singing,  and 
industrial  training  have  even  a  stronger  claim 
for  recognition  as  required  studies  than  algebra 
and  geometry.  A  foreign  language  may  very 
elective  in  properly  be  offered  as  an  elective  in  place  of,  or 
grammar  in  addition  to,  English  grammar.    It  should  how- 

schools,  ever  be  begun  early  in  the  course  and  be  carried 

on  in  such  a  way  as  to  require  little  of  extra 
study  at  home.  Two  or  three  recitations  a  week 
in  a  modern  language  during  the  last  four  or 
five  years  of  the  grammar  school  course  will 
give  abundant  opportunity  for  pupils  of  average 
intelligence  to  acquire  the  ability  to  read  easy 
reading,  to  converse  in  simple  speech,  and  to 
know  something  of  the  grammatical  construc- 
tion of  the  languge. 

Time  limits. — A    determination   of    the    time 

which  should  be  given  to  the  various  subjects  of 

Timehmitsto    g^^^jjy  jg  important  not  merely  on  account  of  the 

by  the  needs  of  Convenience  of  classification  but  chiefly  by  rea- 

the  pupils.        son  of   the  fact  that  it  expresses  the  relative 

value  of  the  studies  to  the  pupils. 

One  way  of  ascertaining  a  proper  standard  of 
time  limits  is  by  a  consideration  of  the  subjects 
themselves  and  the  needs  of  pupils  for  instruc- 
tion in  those  subjects.     If  for  example  it  is  be- 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  79 

lieved  that  there  is  httle  disciphnary  value  in 
arithmetic  and  that  the  real  arithmetical  needs 
of  graduates  of  the  grammar  school  are  limited 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  four  fundamental  rules, 
it  is  evident  that  only  a  small  amount  of  time 
will  be  given  to  that  subject  beyond  the  third  or 
fourth  year  in  school.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
both  the  disciplinary  and  the  practical  value  of 
arithmetic  is  thought  to  be  great,  a  liberal  al- 
lowance of  time  will  be  given  to  the  subject 
daily  throughout  the  course. 

From  this  point  of  view,  we  may  regulate  in 
a  general  way  the  time  w^hich  should  be  given 
to  a  subject  or  group  of  subjects.  For  example, 
we  know  from  the  nature  of  the  child  that  ob- 
servational subjects  should  have  a  relatively  Relative 
large  place  in  the  programmes  of  the  primary  '^™^^^'^t*^ 

"      "^  1       o  L  J     f  jj^g  given  to 

school  and  of  the  lower  grades  of  the  grammar  observational 
school,  while  the  reflective  studies  should  largely  and  reflective 
predominate  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  gram-  '^t^^*^!''*^- 
mar  school  and  in  the  high  school.     We  judge 
also  in  the  same  way  that  the  formal  studies, 
such  as  mathematics   and   language,  should  not 
monopolize  the  time  of  the  pupil  in  any  grade, 
or  prevent  a  good  degree  of  attention  being  given 
to  science,  history,  and  literature. 

Looking  more  closely  to  the  nature  and  needs 
of  the  pupils,  we  may  come  to  a  more  accurate  a  large  share 
estimate  of  the  relative  time  to  be  given  to  each  ^i  time  to  be 
subject.     Upon  the  theory  that  so-called  disci-  s/^^^  *<;*  p'^^- 

•J  ^  J  ticiil  subjects. 

pline  of  the  mind  may  be  gained  by  means  of 
practical  subjects  and  that  the  practical  subjects 
to  be  pursued  are  those  chiefly  which  assist  in  the 


80 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Co-ordinate 
groups  of  sub- 
jects. 


Proportion  of 
time  to  be 
given  to  eacli 
group  of  sub- 
jects. 


preparation  for  vocatioDal  and  social  service,  we 
shall  make  prominent  in  the  course  the  studies 
which  directly  serve  those  ends.  Upon  this 
basis,  the  following  groups  of  subjects  would 
seem  to  have  about  an  equal  claim  upon  the 
time  of  the  school : 

1.  ijanguage  and  literature 

2.  Geography  and  history 

3.  Drawing  and  industrial  training 
■i.  Mathematics  and  science. 

That  is,  a  five  hour  school  day  would  be  di- 
vided so  as  to  give  about  1\  hours  to  each  group  of 
subjects  named.  In  this  division  of  time  several 
circumstances  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. In  the  first  place  the  day's  programme 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  give  pupils  an  op- 
portunity for  study.  Opportunity  also  should 
be  given  for  singing  and  the  needed  physical  and 
recreative  exercises.  Moreover  a  varying  degree 
of  emphasis  must  be  placed  upon  each  branch  of 
study  as  the  pupils  progress  in  their  course.  In 
general  therefore  it  may  be  said  that  the  daily 
time  for  recitation  in  each  group  of  studies 
named  above  should  be  more  or  less  than  one 
hour,  depending  upon  the  age  and  grade  of  pupils. 

Upon  this  basis  the  proportion  of  time  for  each 
group  would  be  about  as  follows: 

I.  Language  (including  reading,  writing,  spell- 
ing, composition,  English  grammar  and  litera- 
ture, and  a  foreign  language),  one  fourth. 

II.  Mathematics  (including  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, geometry,  and  book-keeping)  one-eighth. 

III.  Elementary    science    (including    nature- 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  81 

study,    physiology,    hygiene,    and    geography), 
three- sixteenths.  * 

IV.  History  (including  civil  government,  biog- 
raphy, and  history  proper),  one-eighth. 

V.  Miscellaneous  exercises  (including  singing, 
drawing,  industrial  training,  physical  exercises, 
and  recesses  for  games),  five-sixteenths. 

The  above  proportion  of  time  would  give  an 
average  approximate  number  of  minutes  weekly    »  ,    , ,. 

^        ^  ^  ''     Actual  time  for 

to  each  subject  as  follows,  counting  the  week  each  group, 
to  consist  of  5  days  and  the  day  to  consist  of  5J 
hours : 
I.  Reading  and  literature 150  ^ 

Writing 60      ^  ,  , 

d     ir  Kr.   \  Total,  410 

Spellmg 50   '  ' 

Language  and  grammar 150 

II.   Mathematics,  (arithmetic,  alge-  \  m  x  i 

bra,  and  geometry) 210  j   ^^^^^'  -^^^ 

III.  Geography... 200  |  ^^^^j    ^^^ 

Physiology,  ele.   science 110  j 

IV.  History,   civil  government,  \  ^      , 

biography,  etc 210  /  -^^^^^'  "^^^ 

V.  Opening  exercies,  physi-  \ 

cal  exercises  and  re-  >    150 

cesses ) 

Industrial  exercises 250  j'  Total,  510 

Singing 50   | 

Drawing 60  j 

The  above  allotment  of  time  is  for  all  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  school.  For  example,  an  average 
of  80  minutes  a  day  will  be  given  to  all  the 
recitations  in  the  Language  group  of  studies,  40 
minutes  to  mathematics,  and  so  on.     To  enable 


82 


School   Organization  and  Supervision 


The  results  of 
experience  in 
this  country 
and  Europe. 


Time  for  sub- 
jects in  the 
sub-primary 
class. 


the  pupils  to  have  sufficient  time  for  independent 
study  a  division  of  the  school  in  some  subjects 
into  sections  will  be  necessary,  some  of  the 
classes  reciting  every  day  and  some  only  two  or 
three  times  a  week, 

A  much  closer  estimate  of  the  time  which 
should  be  given  to  each  subject  may  be  found 
by  a  careful  comparison  of  times  allowed  in  good 
courses  of  studies,  on  the  supposition  that  the 
combined  wisdom  of  many  makers  of  courses 
must  be  more  reliable  than  the  wisdom  of  any 
one  person.  An  extended  inquiry  into  the  prac- 
tices of  a  large  number  of  the  most  progressive 
systems  of  schools  in  this  country  and  abroad 
has  been  made  the  basis  of  a  careful  estimate  of 
the  amount  of  time  which  should  be  given  to  each 
group  of  subjects.  The  estimate  in  general  is 
as  follows: 

In  the  sub-primary  class,  or  connecting  class 
between  the  kindergarten  and  the  first  grade 
primary,  a  larger  share  of  time  should  be  given 
to  observation  lessons,  games,  weaving,  paper 
cutting,  etc.,  than  is  given  in  subsequent  grades, 
while  a  comparatively  short  time  should  be 
given  to  reading,  writing,  and  number,  the  pro- 
portional allotments  for  this  grade  being  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  for  physical  exercises,  games, 
manual  training,  etc.,  a  little  more  than  one- 
third;  for  language,  including  reading,  writing 
and  composition,  a  little  less  than  one-third;  for 
number,  one-sixteenth;  for  observation  lessons, 
one-fifth,  and  for  story  teUing  and  memorizing 
of  gems,  one-tenth. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  83 

The  formal  language  studies  should  occupy  a 
larger  proportion  of  time  in  the  earlier  grades  r^^^^  f^,.  gu^. 
of  the  regular  elementary  course  than  in  the  jects  in  the 
later  grades,  while  mathematics  should  have  a  P""i'^i'y  ^"^^ 
less  prominent  place  in  the  lower  grades  than  in  o-rades 
the  upper;  the  approximate  proportion  of  time 
for  formal  language  exercises  being  from  two- 
fifths  to  one-fourth,  and  for  mathematics  from 
one-eighth  to  one-fifth.  The  time  allotted  io 
elementary  science  or  nature  study  should  be  at 
the  beginning  of  the  course  about  one-eighth  of 
the  entire  school  time,  increasing  in  amount  until 
in  the  middle  grades  it  is  one-fifth  of  the  time, 
and  falling  off  in  the  last  two  grades  to  one-sixth 
and  one-eighth  of  the  time.  History,  including 
literature,  biography,  civil  government,  and  his- 
tory proper,  should  occupy  about  as  much  time  as 
science  in  the  first  six  grades.  In  the  two  upper 
grades  about  one-fourth  of  the  time  should  be 
given  to  the  history  group.  To  singing,  draw- 
ing, and  manual  training  there  should  be  but 
little  difference  in  the  proportion  of  time  given 
in  the  various  grades  of  the  course,  the  approxi- 
mate proportion  of  time  being  from  one-fourth 
to  one-fifth.* 

To  establish  for  high  schools  a  theory  of  limits  j)ifflc„it ,  of 
as  to  the  time  which  should  be  given  to  the  vari-  estabiishlug 
ous  subjects  of  study  is  even  more  difficult  than  t"iie  limits  iu 
to  establish  such  a  theory  for  elementary  schools,     '^  ^  ^^  °"  ^' 
for  the  reason  that  the  requirements  for  entrance 
to  higher  institutions  are  to  be  taken  into  con- 

*  For  details  of  the  investigation  upon  which 
these  estimates  are  made  see  Appendix  G. 


84  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

sideration ;  and  until  such  requirements  are  made 
to  agree  with  the  requirements  of  a  preparation 
for  life  it  will  be  practically  impossible  to  regu- 
late courses,  at  least  college  preparatory  courses, 
upon  any  just  basis. 

In  all  the  courses,  both  required  and  elective 
studies  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  cultural  as 
well  as  the  practical  needs  of  the  pupils  will  be 
met.  There  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  the  need 
of  providing  foundation  studies  for  all  technical 
subjects.  From  an  extremely  practical  point 
of  view  the  studies  to  be  offered  in  any  course 
will  be  those  which  contribute  directly  to  the 
future  vocation  of  the  pupils  taking  the  course. 
With  such  a  view,  the  business  course  will  con- 
sist only  of  business  studies  such  as  penmanship 
book-keeping,  stenography,  and  typewriting; 
and  a  mechanics  course  will  consist  only  of  such 
studies  as  drawing,  wood  working,  and  forging. 
But  if  we  consider  as  desirable  the  need  of  a 
preparation  for  all  the  duties  of  life  and  also  the 
need  of  a  thorough  groundwork  in  a  knowledge 
of  principles,  we  see  that  a  technical  course  should 
be  much  broader  than  either  of  the  courses  indi- 
cated. 

It  seems  only  reasonable,  therefore,  that  such 
Culture  studies  culture  studies  as  history  and  English  literature 
to  be  required    gj^Q^j^j  have  a  large  and  continuous  place  in  an 

throughout  the  -,      •  -i    n  ^^         i  /^     • 

course.  ideal  course,  designed  for  pupils  who  are  fitting 

either  for  a  higher  institution  or  directly  for  life. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  English  language,  in- 
cluding composition,  grammar,  rhetoric,  etc. 
Three   recitations  a  week   in   both  history  and 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  85 

English  literature  throughout  the  course  and 
two  recitations  a  week  in  English  language  would 
seem  not  too  much  to  require  of  every  pupil. 
Upon  the  assumption  that  each  full  time  pupil 
will  have  18  recitations  a  week  in  addition  to 
physical  training,  singing,  etc. ,  there  will  be  left 
10  recitations  a  week  for  optional  studies.  If 
the  selection  is  made  in  recognition  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  a  many-sided  interest  or  a  harmonious 
development  of  the  powers,  both  science  and 
mathematics  will  receive  a  fair  share  of  atten- 
tion— perhaps  3  recitations  a  week  in  each  study, 

„        .  ,,  .    .  .  -Til  •  ,       Science,  mathe- 

allowm^  the  remammg  4  periods  to  be  given  to  ^atics  and  lan- 
a   foreign   language.     If  it  seems   desirable  to  guage  in  the 
offer  a  second  foreign  language  for  2  or  3  years,  ^'^s^  school. 
time  could  be  found  for  it  either  by  increasing 
the  number  of  recitations  per  week  or  by  drop- 
ping one  of  the  other  studies.* 

Grades  and  courses. — Upon  the  assumption 
that  the  kindergarten  and  connecting  or  sub- 
primary  classes  are  made  a  part  of  the  school 
system  the  courses  will  be  as  follows : 

1.  Kindergarten  course  of  one  year  for  chil- 

-,  ,  o  '  The  various 

dren4years  of  age.  courses  and 

2.  Sub-primary   course  of  one  year  for  chil-  time  for  each, 
dren  5  years  of  age. 

3.  Primary  school  course  of  two  years  to  be 
begun  by  children  6  years  of  age. 

4.  Grammar  school  course  of  6  years  for  pu- 
pils who  have  completed  work  required  for  the 
primary  course. 

*  For  brief  outlines  of  high  school  courses 
adapted  to  various  conditions,  see  Appendix  H. 


86 


School   Organization  and  Supervisiori 


Age  of  gradu- 
ation. 


Quality  and 
not  quantity  to 
be|empliasized. 


Some  teachers 
to  have  a  large 
degree  of  free- 
dom. 


5.  One  or  more  high  school  courses  of  4  years 
for  pupils  who  have  completed  the  work  required 
for  the  grammar  school  course. 

If  the  above  plan  is  closely  followed  and  if 
promotions  from  grade  to  grade  are  uniformly 
made,  all  the  pupils  will  graduate  from  the  high- 
est course  at  the  age  of  18.  If,  however,  the 
subjects  of  study  are  properly  selected  and  ar- 
ranged and  if  the  plan  of  promotions  is  as  elas- 
tic as  it  should  be,  the  age  at  which  the  pupils 
will  leave  the  high  school  will  range  from  16  to 
20  years  and  the  training  provided  in  this  school 
will  be  a  good  preparation  either  for  college  or 
for  the  ordinary  duties  of  life. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  tendency  of  unwise 
and  unskilled  teachers  is  to  emphasize  the  quan- 
titative rather  than  the  qualitative  side  of  their 
work ;  to  regard  the  work  of  teaching  mainly  as 
an  assistance  to  the  pupils  in  obtaining  a  certain 
amount  of  knowledge  or  mformation;  and  as 
this  can  be  measured  best  by  the  pages  of  the 
book  or  by  the  per  cent  marks  in  an  examin- 
ation these  standards  are  uppermost  in  their 
minds.  The  apportioning  of  subjects  and  topics 
in  a  course  of  studies  so  that  the  attention  is 
fixed  mainly  upon  the  amount  to  be  learned 
tends  to  strengthen  these  convictions  of  unwise 
teachers  and  places  unnecessary  restraints  upon 
wise  ones. 

It  may  be  said  that  whenever  a  course  of  stud- 
ies gives  a  great  degree  of  freedom  to  teachers, 
there  is  likely  to  be  a  neglect  of  essentials  and 
a  weakening  of  work  that  may  be  called  consec- 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  87 

utive.  But  this  can  be  true  only  of  unwise  and 
unskilled  teachers.  With  those  teachers  who 
understand  what  all  their  pupils  most  need  and 
who  know  how  they  are  best  to  be  provided  with 
it,  the  faults  above  alluded  to  are  not  hkely  to 
exist.  To  them  the  fixed  bounds  of  non-essen- 
tials stand  in  the  way  of  a  proper  adjustment  of 
the  work  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils.  In  mat- 
ters only  that  are  essential  or  important  should 
limitations  be  indicated  in  a  course  of  studies. 

But  even  the  hmits  of  the  essentials  of  knowl- 
edge might  well  be  omitted  in  a  course  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  one  teacher  alone.  It  is  only  in  a  sys- 
tem of  schools  where  two  or  more  teachers  are 
employed  that  a  limited  plan  or  programme  of 
studies  is  needed.  The  fact  that  the  non-essen- 
tial subjects  are  almost  limitless  in  number  and 
kind  renders  it  impossible  to  make  a  selection  of 
such  subjects  as  will  be  suitable  alike  for  all 
schools  or  for  the  pupils  of  all  teachers. 

For  -these  reasons,  a  course  of  studies  intended 
for  the  schools  of  a  large  section,  as  of  a  county 
or  state,  should  first  of  all  be  general  in  charac- 
ter, and  be  confined  largely  to  the  designation  of 
subjects  that  are  essential  or  important.  This 
course  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  a  city  or  town 
course  having  the  following  features:  . 

1.  A  general  outline  of  subjects  to  be  taught 

in  the  various  grades  and  classes,  related  sub-  Ff'^tui^es  o^  a 

.  .  city  or  town 

jects  to  be  given  m  groups.  course  of 

2.  A   designation   of   important   or   principal  studies. 
features  which  must  be  taken  by  all  for  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  subject. 


88 


School  Organization  and  Supervi?i':'r! 


A  miniTrmm 
of  ■work  xo  be 
desienated. 


General  and 

specific 

courses. 


3.  A  designation  of  the  less  important  fea- 
tures which  may  be  taken  up  by  some  classes 
and  pupils. 

4.  A  special  syllabus  upon  each  subject  or 
group  of  subjects  giving  in  detail.  (O)  sugges- 
tions of  topics,  from  which  the  teacher  may  se- 
lect in  giving  work  to  a  class  or  to  individual 
pupils.  ( ?> '  suggestions  to  teachers  as  to  means, 
methods,  sources,  etc. 

o.  A  division  of  the  various  subjects  in  such 
a  way  that  at  given  periods  of  time  there  may 
be  a  rational  and  orderiy  correlation  of  studies. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  designate  periods  of 
time  during  which  prescribed  work  must  be  ac- 
complished, but  it  should  be  done  in  such  a  way 
as  to  permit  an  elastic  system  of  grading  and 
promotions.  This  may  be  effected  by  designat- 
ing the  minimum  of  work  which  is  to  be  done 
within  certain  periods,  and  by  placing  in  a  par- 
allel column  the  time  at  which  all  that  g<>es  be- 
fore shall  be  completed.  The  outhne  of  subjects 
thus  presented  will  be  only  the  essential  or  most 
important  work  required  to  be  done. 

Some  superintendents  follow  the  plan  of  plac- 
ing a  general  course  before  their  teachers,  and 
of  supplementing  this  course  by  specific  direc- 
tions in  monthly  grade  meetings.  This  plan  suc- 
ceeds well  where  not  too  many  details  are  given, 
and  where  the  independence  and  originahty  of 
the  teachers  are  not  interfered  with.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  affording  opportunity  for  constant 
adjustment  of  work  to  new  and  varied  condi- 
tions,  and   of  assisting  untrained   or  inexperi- 


T/t€   Superintendent  as   Organizer  89 

enced  teachers  in  a  proper  interpretation  of  direc- 
tions. Such  a  plan  is  especially  advantageous  for 
directors  of  special  subjects,  like  drawing  and 
nature  study,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  opportunity 
for  instructing  teachers  in  such  technical  details 
as  are  not  well  understood  by  them. 

The   plan  of   issuing   separate  pamphlets   or 
slips,   containing  the  prescribed  and  suggested 
work  for  each  subject  in  all  the  grades,  has  the  Separate 
advantage   of  bringing   before   each   teacher  a  prescribed 
statement  of  what  is  expected  to  be  done  in  a  work. 
given  subject  in  all  the  grades,  thus  making  it 
easy  for  every  teacher  to  know  what  every  other 
teacher  is  expected  to  do, — a  necessary  condition 
for  good  work.     This  condition  is  not  likely  to 
exist  under  a  plan  followed  by  a  few  superintend- 
ents, of  presenting  the  prescribed  course  of  each 
grade  in  a  single  pamphlet. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  course  shall  be  ^^i^tjiQfjg  ^f 
presented  by  years  or  terms  in  each  subject — or  laying  out  the 
by  subjects  in  each  year  or  grade  will  bo  deter-  ^'^rk. 
mined  largely  by  circumstances.     Teachers  are 
perhaps  less  likely  to  confine  their  attention  to 
the  requirements  of  their  own  grade  or  grades 
by  the  former  plan.     The  advantages  of  both 
X^lans  may  be  secured  Ijy   placing  the   require- 
ments in  tabular  form  opposite  a  given  year  or 
term.     By  this  plan  the  requirements  of  a  special 
grade  will  be  read  horizontally  and  the  require- 
ments of  all  grades  in  a  given  subject  or  group 
of  subjects  will  be  read  vertically. 

Correlation  and  concentration  of  studies. — The 
terms  correlation  and  concentration  as  applied  to 


90 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


defined. 


a  course  of  studies  are  sometimes  used  inter- 
changeably— but  in  the  meaning  of  the  two 
words  there  is  a  technical  difference  which  should 
and  concentra-  ^®  ^'^P^  ^^^  mind.  Correlation  of  studies  may  be 
tion  of  studies  defined  as  the  process  of  bringing  related  sub- 
jects into  such  relation  to  the  mind  that  they 
may  be  comprehended  and  used  together.  Con- 
centration of  studies  goes  one  step  further.  It 
combines  with  correlation  a  study  of  several 
subjects  in  relation  to  a  common  subject  as  a 
centre.  It  is  the  process  of  focussing  related 
subjects  so  that  emphasis  may  be  placed  upon  a 
central  subject,  the  focussing  to  be  made  from 
the  parts  of  a  subject,  from  the  subjects  of  a 
group,  or  from  all  subjects  of  the  course. 

The  practice  of  some  schools  in  recent  years 
suggests  possible  dangers  of  over-correlation — 
dangers  of  restrictive  limitations  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  the  forcing  of  unnatural  relations 
on  the  other.  But  some  of  the  practices  also 
suggest  lines  of  correlation  which  every  course 
of  study  should  indicate. 

If  the  desired  correlation  of  studies  signifies 
nothing  more  than  a  means  of  remembering  cer- 
tain facts  of  a  subject,  it  may  be  limited  to  in- 
cidental references  which  any  good  teacher  makes 
in  his  teaching,  and  no  mention  need  be  made 
of  such  references  in  the  course  of  studies  more 
than  to  state  the  fact  that  in  every  study  the 
teacher  should  bring  together  in  the  recitation 
certain  related  ideas  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
those  ideas  more  firmly  in  the  pupils'  minds. 

It   is   asserted   by  some  that  a  correlation  of 


Uses  of  corre- 
lation. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  91 

studies  means  only  a  sequence  of  studies  such  as 
would  be  made  with  the  ends  of  education  clear- 
ly in  view.  According  to  others,  these  views  of 
correlation  are  insufficient  as  a  guide  to  educa- 
tion. The  mind,  they  say,  naturally  unifies  the 
knowledge  it  receives,  and  it  is  the  function  of 
the  course  of  studies,  as  it  is  of  the  teacher,  to 
assist  nature  in  this  work. 

With  the  notion  of  incidental  association  of 
ideas  only  in  mind,  or  that  of  a  proper  sequence 
of  topics  in  the  study  of  a  subject,  the  teacher 
finds  it  difficult  to  "  assist  nature  "  in  following 
some  of  our  present  courses  of  studies.  With 
these  courses  only  as  guides,  he  might  lead  his 
l^upils  to  learn  the  commercial  cities  of  Europe, 
the  history  of  Mexico,  the  names  of  the  planets  ^^^^  dangers  of 
and  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  an  or-  anaSation  of 
chid,  to  conjugate  the  verb  "to  be  ",  to  write  studies. 
a  composition  upon  perseverance,  to  read  about 
the  exploits  of  John  Smith,  to  perform  problems 
in  partial  payments,  and  to  spell  the  names  of 
the  diseases, — all  to  be  studied  and  recited  on 
the  same  day.  This  many  teachers  will  say  is 
not  an  exaggerated  record  of  what  they  are  ex- 
pected to  do  in  a  single  day.  In  other  words, 
the  course  of  studies  in  many  cases  is  simply  an 
aggregation  of  subjects  put  together  with  no 
reference  to  their  natural  relations.  Moreover 
the  burden  is  becoming  more  heavy  and  the 
trial  more  perplexing  as  year  by  year  new  stud- 
ies are  added  to  the  curriculum. 

A  true  correlation  of  studies  will  help  to  solve 
the  difficulty  by  furnishing  to  the  teacher  helps 


92 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Result  and 
ways  of  cor- 
relation. 


Subjects  to  be 
arranged  in 
groups. 


both  in  the  unification  and  in  the  co-ordination 
of  studies.  To  accompHsh  these  ends  it  will  be 
necessary  to  select  the  parts  of  all  subjects  for 
a  given  term  or  month  that  have  a  close  relation 
to  one  another,  and  to  arrange  them  in  groups 
that  are  in  some  degree  co-ordinate ;  i.  e.  equally 
essential  as  a  means  of  gaining  the  chief  ends  of 
education.  There  are  parts  of  literature,  history, 
science,  mathematics,  and  the  language  arts  that 
are  clearly  connected,  logically  and  psychologi- 
cally. These  subjects  should  be  arranged  in  a 
course  of  studies  so  that  they  may  be  carried  on 
together.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  confine  the 
work  of  the  school  to  these  related  subjects,  but 
they  should  constitute  both  in  kind  and  in 
amount  the  essential  work  to  be  done  in  a  given 
time.  That  the  education  may  be  harmonious 
or  many-sided,  at  least  one  subject  of  each  of 
the  great  co-ordinate  groups  of  studies  must  be 
pursued  during  the  entire  school  period. 

The  wise  teacher's  practice  and  needs  in  his 
daily  work  may  well  determine  the  character  of 
a  course  of  studies.  As  has  been  said,  the  good 
teacher  always  and  everywhere  recognizes  in 
teaching  any  subject  the  importance  of  bringing 
to  the  attention  of  his  pupils  all  scraps  of  re- 
lated knowledge,  and  of  appealing  to  their  ex- 
perience of  every  kind  which  has  a  vital  con- 
nection with  the  subject  in  hand. 

In  teaching  reading  for  example  the  teacher 
recognizes  the  fact  that  reading  is  but  a  means 
of  learning  history,  literature,  and  science,  and 
therefore  these  subjects  are  early  brought  into 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  93 

service  as  a  means  of  securing   the   immediate 

ends  of  the  subject  which  he  is  teaching.     More-  Examples  of 

,,  ..  ...  (»Tij^  1        correlation. 

over  the  proper  mterpretation  of  hterature  de- 
mands a  minute  and  widely  extended  knowl- 
edge of  many  things  which  are  made  the  sub- 
ject of  study  at  the  time  of  reading.  In  geog- 
raphy there  are  presented  constantly  the  related 
subjects  in  various  fields  of  knowedge  not  com- 
monly regarded  as  geographical.  Even  in  the 
teaching  of  mathematics  there  are  repeated  ap- 
plications which  incidentally  open  to  the  pupils 
increased  acquisitions  in  science  and  art.  In  all 
this  work  the  course  of  studies  should  be  of  ma- 
terial assistance — both  by  leaving  the  teacher 
free  to  teach  in  the  best  way  and  also  by  help- 
fully suggesting  related  material. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  method  of  cor- 
relation implies  a  method  of  concentration  by 
which  each  subject  taught  is  made   in   turn  a  '.  ^*^'^^'^"^''^- 

''  '^  tion  of  studies 

central  or  focussing  subject.  Many  educators  desirable. 
while  not  discouraging  such  work  would  carry 
the  idea  further  by  making  one  subject  of  study 
a  focussing  centre  of  all  others,  the  central  sub- 
ject being  determined  by  its  relative  importance 
as  a  means  of  attaining  the  highest  ends  of  edu- 
cation. The  most  conspicuous  example  of  this 
kind  of  correlation  is  that  furnished  by  some  of 
the  followers  of  Herbart,  who,  in  making  moral  „   .     .. 

'  '  '^  Ilerbartian 

and  religious  culture  the  supreme  end  in  educa-  i,iea  of  concen- 
tion,  place  special    emphasis  upon  history  and  tration. 
make  that  subject  the  central  one  to  which  all 
others  refer.     In  the  laying  out  of  a  course  of 
studies  upon  this  plan,  the  effort  is  made  to  place 


94: 


ScJiool  Organization  and  Supervision 


Histo]-y  a  basis 
of  correlation. 


Industrial 
work  a  basis 
of  correlation. 


the  national  and  religious  stages  of  development 
in  agreement  with  the  corresponding  stages  of 
the  child's  mental  development. 

The  same  parallelism  of  racial  and  individual 
development  is  recognized  in  recent  courses 
which  make  the  history  of  our  country  the  basis 
of  correlation.  Thus  in  the  early  years  of  the 
child's  life  in  school  or  when  he  is  6  or  7  years 
of  age,  primitive  conditions  of  life  are  talked 
and  read  about.  Stories  of  exploration  and  dis- 
covery become  the  centre  about  which  lessons 
in  natural  history,  geography,  and  even  arith- 
metic are  given.  Later,  accounts  of  early  set- 
tlements are  made  the  centre  of  interest  and  of 
study.  Thus  in  the  middle  grades  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  thirteen  colonies  is  made  the  basis 
for  the  study  of  North  America  and  of  the  plants 
and  animals  peculiar  to  that  locality,  while  all 
help  to  illumine  such  masterpieces  of  literature 
as  Hiawatha  and  Evangeline. 

Akin  to  the  above  idea  of  correlation  is  the 
uniting  of  the  home  and  neighborhood  life  with 
the  work  of  the  school  so  zealously  advocated  by 
some  educators.  Thus  useful  occupations  which 
represent  the  products  of  civilized  life  are  made 
the  basis  of  the  course.  In  connection  with 
gardening,  and  making  of  baskets,  rugs,  cloth- 
ing, etc.,  there  is  joined  much  incidental  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  measuring,  casting  accounts, 
etc.,  while  the  pupils  are  brought  into  close  re- 
lation with  genuine  conditions  of  spiritual  cul- 
ture. 

In  all  these  various   schemes  of    correlation 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  95 

there  will  be  seen  two  distinct  features:  first  an 
appeal  to  the  child's  natural  interests,  and  sec- 
ondly an  aid  to  the  preparation  for  life  in  the 
world.  The  two  aspects  of  life  with  which  edu- 
cation has  chiefly  to  do  are  the  life  of  the  indi-  ^^^"striai  oc- 

.j       1  1  .  p    1        11.  -,    c'lipations  and 

vidual  as  a  worker  in  some  useful  calling  and  history  the  two 
the  life  of  the  individual  as  a  member  of  society,  centred 
With  the  former  or  vocational  end  in  view  we 
shall  make  the  industrial  occupations  of  the 
school  a  centre  of  study.  With  the  latter,  or 
social  end  in  view,  history  will  take  the  leading 
place.  But  in  both  aspects  there  will  be  recog- 
nized the  necessity  of  unifying  knowledge  as 
far  as  possible,  and  of  bringing  it  into  a  close 
relation  to  service  which  is  alike  the  end  of  edu- 
cation and  the  end  of  life. 

The  making  of  a  course  of  studies. — The  fea-  p^^^j.  ^ , 
tures  of  a  course  of  studies  which  superintend-  of  a  course  of 
ents   should   especially   consider   are:  first,   the  studies. 
scope  or  aim  and  range  of  subjects  to  be  pre- 
sented under  each  group;    second,   the  relation 
which  the  subjects  of  a  group  bear  to  one  an- 
other and  to  the  subjects  of  other  groups ;  third, 
the  sequence  or  order  in  which  the  various  sub- 
jects or  parts   of  subjects  should  be  presented; 
and,    fourth,    the  limitations  both  in  time  and 
substance  which  should  be  made  in  each  branch 
of  study. 

The  aim  or  purpose  of  a  given  subject  of  study  *,("sui'-'^,ets"^^ 
may  be  general  and  remote,  or  specific  and  im- 
mediate ;  a  course  of  studies  has  to  do  mainly  with 
the  former,  the  latter  aim  belonging  more  to  a 
statement  of  methods  which  are  supposed  to  be 


96 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Relation  of 
subjects. 


Sequence  of 
of  subjects. 


known  by  teachers.  The  range  of  topics  out- 
lined in  each  branch  of  study  will  be  determined 
partly  by  the  aim  and  partly  by  the  conditions 
under  which  the  school  is  carried  on, — these  con- 
ditions being  the  number  of  pupils,  the  number 
of  classes,  the  length  of  the  course,  the  number 
and  character  of  the  teaching  force.  It  is  un- 
derstood, of  course,  that,  as  "  preparation  for 
complete  living  "  is  the  end  of  education,  so  all 
subjects  and  parts  of  subjects  that  do  not  con- 
tribute to  this  end  are  to  be  excluded  from  the 
course. 

The  subjects  of  study  should  be  so  placed  in  a 
course  as  to  assist  the  teacher  to  correlate  them 
in  teaching,  that  is,  to  present  them  in  right  re- 
lations, so  that  each  fact  of  knowledge  or  in- 
formation acquired  shall  be  fortified  and  en- 
riched by  others,  and  so  that  good  habits  of 
thinking  shall  be  encouraged.  As  far  as  possi- 
ble, the  relation  of  each  subject  to  its  use,  and 
especially  to  its  use  in  life,  should  be  indicated. 

The  sequence  or  order  in  which  the  various 
topics  should  be  presented  is  determined  by 
their  relations  of  dependence  one  upon  anotner, 
and  by  the  natural  order  in  which  the  mind  acts. 
The  sequence  of  subjects  in  a  course  should  not 
be  so  marked  or  finely  drawn  as  to  cause  the 
teacher  to  think  more  of  the  relation  or  depend- 
ence of  subjects  one  upon  another  than  of  the 
relation  of  each  subject  to  the  mind  and  life  of 
the  child. 

The  limitations  of  any  branch  of  study  in  re- 
spect to  time  and  subject-matter  will  be  deter- 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  97 

mined  largely  by  the  relative  importance  of  that 
branch  or  of  the  subjects  of  that  branch  as  a  , .  .  . 
means  of  accomplishing  the  ends  to  be  desired,  subjects. 
Other  limitations  are  those  which  are  determined 
by  the  length  of  the  school  session  and  school 
year  and  by  the  number  of  classes  and  pupils  to 
a  teacher. 

Course  in  language,  including  readiiig,  writing, 
compositioyi  and  spelling,  ynemory  tvork,  EyigUsh 
grammar,  and  one  foreign  language. 

Language  is  the  expression  of  thought.  The 
term  as  used  in  the  school  curriculum  is  in-  ^.\y^^\^^^\  iVian- 
tended  to  mean  the  expression  of  thought  in  gnage. 
words.  As  a  subject  of  instruction,  it  relates  to 
acquiring  thought  by  means  of  the  printed  or 
written  page,  and  to  expressing  thought  both  by 
speaking  and  by  writing.  Language,  therefore, 
includes  upon  the  practical  side  reading  and 
composition.  Upon  the  theoretical  side  it  in- 
cludes grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic,  the  ele- 
ments only  of  which  should  be  taught  in  the 
grammar  school,  and  always  in  close  connection 
with  reading  and  composition.  In  some  schools 
a  foreign  language  may  be  taught  during  the 
last  years  of  the  grammar  school  course,  the  sub- 
ject being  offered  as  an  elective  for  those  who  can 
carry  on  the  regular  English  branches. 

1.  The  immediate  aim  in  language  is  the  power   , . 

^      '^  ^  Aim  and  scope 

to  gain  and  communicate  ideas  through  written  „f  language 
or  spoken  words.     This  will  involve  (a)  power  iL-aeiiing. 
to  read  intelligently  and  (b)  power  to  speak  and 
write  correctly  and  effectively. 

The  reading  must  include,  first,  a  mastery  of 


98  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

the  symbols,  that  is,  learning  to  read ;  and,  sec- 
ond, such  companionship  with  and  study  of  good 
literature  as  shall  develop  power  to  understand 
and  appreciate  it,  to  the  end  of   inculcating  a 
strong  and  lasting  taste  for  the  best  reading  and 
of  developing  a  fine  artistic  and  moral  sense. 
The  power  to  speak  and  write  correctly  and 
Ends  in  teach-  effectively  involves,  first,  the  mastery  of  written 
ing  anguage      ^^^  spoken  fomis  in  accordance  with  accepted 

and  grammar.  '^  "^ 

usage;  second,  analysis  of  language  to  discover 
the  rules  of  usage ;  and,  third,  constant  practice 
in  speaking  and  writing,  both  before  and  after 
such  analysis.  Effectiveness  in  writing  includes 
clearness,  conciseness,  force,  grace,  and  origin- 
ality. 

While  the  elementary  course  in  grammar  has 
for  its  chief  end  correctness  of  oral  and  written 
speech,  it  may  also  include  some  features  of  effec- 
tiveness, such  as  clearness,  conciseness,  and  force. 
The  most  important  fact  to  be  kept  in  mind  is 
that  the  study  of  this  subject  in  the  grammar 
school  should  be  elementary  and  very  practical, 
the  aim  being  to  teach  principles  by  which  the 
pupil  is  enabled,  first,  to  understand  the  language 
of  literature ;  and,  second,  to  express  his  thoughts 
in  some  measure  as  they  should  be  expressed. 
An  incidental  but  by  no  means  unimportant  end 
in  the  study  of  grammar  is  mental  discipline, — a 
power  of  the  mind  to  generalize,  to  make  rules 
from  facts,  and  to  apply  principles  and  rules  to 
practice. 

2.  It  is  evident  that  all  forms  of  language 
as  branches  of  study  are  closely  related  to  one 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  99 

another  and  to  nearly  all  other  branches.  The 
forms  of  expression  in  the  reading  books  become  R^^iations  of 
models  for  imitation  in  all  departments  of  ::^f^  ^^  ^" 
composition  work,  which  serves  as  a  means  of 
practice  in  grammar  and  rhetoric.  The  relation 
of  the  theoretical  side  of  language  to  the  practi- 
cal side  both  in  reading  and  in  writing  should  be 
indicated  by  prescribing  practice  in  analysis  of 
sentences  and  in  constant  application  of  the 
rules  of  syntax  most  frequently  violated. 

The  work  in  composition  should  be  closely  re- 
lated to  the  pupils'  thinking;  and  as  the  regular 
subjects  of  study  are  supposed  to  occasion 
thought,  they  therefore  constitute  a  good  basis 
for  language  in  the  recitation.  Moreover,  the 
regular  studies,  especially  geography,  history, 
science,  and  reading,  should  constantly  furnish 
topics  for  composition. 

Some  of  the  most  obvious  relations  which  the 
branches  of  this  group  have  with  one  another 
and  with  other  subjects  of  study  are  matters  of 
apperceptive  teaching,  which  every  good  teacher 
understands,  and  which  therefore  need  not  be 
indicated  in  a  course  of  studies. 

3.  To  secure  a  mastery  of  forms  in  language,  a 
certain  definite  order  should  be  followed.  Thus  in 
learning  to  read,  the  order  is  governed  by  a  well-  sequence  of 
known  principle  of    "proceeding  from  a  vague  subjects  in  lau- 
knowledge  of  the  whole  through  analysis  and  s"^'sc- 
synthesis  to  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  whole." 
While  a  course  of  studies  may  not  give  the  steps 
by  which  this  principle  is  observed,  it  may  prop- 
erly state  that  the  teaching  should  begin  either 


100         School   Organization  and  Supervision 

with  words  alone  or  with  words  in  sentences, 
and  that  analysis  and  synthesis  should  follow 
in  natural  order.  It  may  also  state  that  the  first 
words  and  sentences  should  he  read  from  the 
blackboard,  and  afterwards  from  the  chart  and 
first  readers.  The  order  to  be  followed  at 
this  stage  in  the  selection  of  reading  material 
is  well  indicated  by  the  ordinary  first  and  second 
readers.  The  order  of  selection  after  the  pupils 
have  acquired  skill  in  reading  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  tastes  and  abilities  of  the  children, 
the  selection  to  be  made  from  given  lists  of  books. 

The  sequence  to  be  followed  in  the  technique 
of  writing  may  be  sufficiently  indicated  by  stat- 
ing that  during  the  first  two  years  there  should  be 
much  copying  of  good  texts,  beginning  with 
words  whose  letters  are  easily  made,  as  man  and 
cow,  and  proceeding  by  degrees  to  words  more 
difficult  to  write.  Some  courses  prescribe  much 
practice  with  single  letters  to  be  taken  up  in  the 
order  of  complexity. 

In  spelling,  it  appears  to  be  the  custom  in  the 
best  courses  to  prescribe  some  oral  work  for 
the  lower  grades,  but  the  main  attention, 
is  given  to  writing  words  in  sentences.  The 
words  selected  for  drill  in  these  grades  are  to  be 
found  in  the  regular  reading  books.  Beyond  the 
third  grade,  in  addition  to  the  words  used  in  the 
composition  exercises,  lists  of  words  such  as  are 
found  in  a  good  spelling  book  may  be  used  with 
profit  for  dictation,  the  words  to  be  written  both 
singly  and  in  sentences. 

English  grammar  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  101 

the  few  strictly  sequential  subjects  of  the  ele- 
mentary course.     Each  topic  should  lead  up  to  Outline  for 
the  next,  and  all  should  have  distinct  reference     ^^  *^   gram- 

'  mar. 

to  the  ends  already  pointed  out.  The  following 
general  outline  shows  the  order  which  may  be 
pursued  in  an  elementary  study  of  this  subject : — 

(1)  the  sentence  and  kinds  of  sentences  de- 
fined 

(2)  subject  and  predicate,   simple  and  com- 
plete 

(3)  parts  of  speech 

(4)  limiting  phrases  and  clauses 

(5)  nouns — kinds  and  forms 

(6)  pronouns — kinds  and  forms 

(7)  rules  of   syntax,  respecting  the  case    of 
pronouns 

(8)  verbs — kinds  and  forms 

(9)  rule  of  syntax,    respecting  the  form   of 
the  verb 

(10)  adjectives — kinds,  forms  and  uses 

(11)  adverbs — kinds,  forms  and  uses 

(12)  prepositions — uses 

(13)  conjunctions — kinds  and  uses. 

4.  The  amount  that  can  be  done  in  the  various 

language  subjects  will  depend  largely  upon  the 

grade  and  natural  abilities  of  the  pupils.   In  some  ,  ™ita*i^2sjii 
°  ^     ^  language.sub- 

subjects  the  exact  amount  to  be  done  should  jects. 
not  be  prescribed,  while  in  others  the  amount 
prescribed  will  indicate  the  least  that  should  be 
done  in  a  given  period,  with  a  provision  for 
sufficient  time  to  permit  classes  or  individual 
pupils  to  do  as  much  as  they  are  able  to  do. 
At   the   end   of  the   second   year   the   pupils 


102         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

should  have  so  far  mastered  the  symbols  of  read- 
ing as  to  read  easily  at  sight  any  ordinary  second 
reader.  To  accomplish  this,  several  first  readers 
and  several  second  readers  should  be  read  through 
during  the  two  years.  After  the  second  year  the 
reading  should  be  carried  on  in  the  two  lines  al- 
ready indicated,  an  average  of  at  least  ten  pages 
a  week  of  each  kind  being  required  in  all  grades. 
It  should  be  understood  that  this  is  the  mini- 
mum required,  and  does  not  include  the  amount 
of  reading  to  be  done  at  home  or  the  extra  read- 
ing by  individual  pupils.  In  most  schools  prob- 
ably the  limit  set  is  not  more  than  half  of  what 
can  be  well  done. 

Except  in  special  instances,  no  set  exercises  in 
writing  should  be  given  after  the  fifth  year. 
Whatever  is  needed  to  secure  legibility  and 
rapidity  of  writing  after  this  time  should  be 
done  in  connection  with  the  composition  and 
dictation  work. 

Most  of  the  special  instruction  in  spelling 
should  be  given  during  the  first  six  years.  With 
the  exception  of  occasional  reviews,  the  work  in 
this  branch  during  the  last  two  years  of  the 
course  should  be  confined  to  the  correction  of 
words  mis-spelled  in  the  composition  and  other 
written  exercises. 

The  limits  in  written  language  are  difficult  to 
define.  It  is  understood  that  more  depends  upon 
the  quality  of  work  done  than  upon  the  quan- 
tity ;  and  yet  it  is  manifestly  the  latter  feature 
only  that  can  be  presented  in  a  course  of  studies. 
An  average  of  10  lines  a  day  of  carefully  writ- 


The  Superintendent  as  Organizer  103 

ten  original  work  during  the  entire  course  be- 
yond the  second  grade,  and  an  equal  amount  of 
dictation  for  instruction  in  punctuation,  spelhng, 
etc. ,  from  the  third  to  the  sixth  grades  inclusive, 
should  be  the  minimum  of  written  work  re- 
quired, it  being  understood  that  monthly  com- 
positions are  to  be  written  by  all  pupils  in  the 
three  highest  grades.  By  original  work  is  meant 
letter  writing,  descriptions  of  pictures  and  ob- 
jects, narration  of  events  real  or  imaginary,  and 
all  reproductions  in  which  the  pupils  use  their 
own  arrangement  of  words. 

In  designating  the  subjects  of  this  group,  no 
mention  was  made  of  memorizing  choice  selec- 
tions of  poetry  and  prose.  While  such  an  exer- 
cise may  be  classed  under  reading  and  dictation, 
particular  mention  of  it  should  be  made  in  the 
course.  An  average  of  at  least  10  lines  a  week 
should  be  required  to  be  memorized  by  pupils  of 
all  grades,  it  being  understood  that  the  selec- 
tions memorized  shall  be  of  a  high  order  of  liter- 
ary merit,  and  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the 
children. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  necessity  of 
limiting  the  study  of  grammar  in  the  grammar 
school  to  the  elements  of  the  study  and  to  its 
use  in  analysis  and  syntax.  Only  those  proper- 
ties of  the  parts  of  speech  should  be  required  to 
be  learned  that  are  needed  for  analysis  of  sen- 
tences and  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
rules  of  syntax.  These  rules  should  be  limited 
to  rules  which  are  most  commonly  violated. 
Not   more   than  10   rules   should   be  made  and 


104         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

learned,  but  they  should  form  the  basis  of  con- 
stant practice  in  the  construction  of  sentences. 
These  and  other  limitations  of  the  subject  appear 
in  what  has  been  said  upon  the  sequence  of  top- 
ics to  be  studied. 

Where  there  are  so  many  branches  in  a  group 
as  are  included  in  this  group,  it  may  be  well  to 
designate  approximately  the  amount  of  time  to 
which  the  recitation  in  each  branch  should  be 
limited.  If,  for  example,  the  amount  of  time 
allowed  for  the  language  group  of  studies  in  the 
various  grades  ranges  from  one-fourth  to  two- 
fifths  of  the  entire  school  time,  the  allotment  for 
each  branch  of  the  group  might  be  as  follows : 

Time  programme,  showing  the  number  of  min- 
utes a  tveek  spent  in  recitation  by  a  pupil  in 
reading^  ivriting^  spelling,  composition  and 
grammar. 


SUBJECT 

Sub- 
pri- 
mary 

Grade 

1 

Grade 

2 

Grade 
3 

Grade 
4 

Grade 

5 

Grade 
6 

Grade 

7 

Gr'd 
8 

Reading . . 
Spelling  . . 
Writing  . . 
Comp'tiou 
Grammar . 

198* 

I- 100-1 

50 

190 
50 
60 

78 

. . 

190 
50 
60 

78 

150 
50 
75 
96 

120 
50 
60 
90 

120 
50 
60 
90 

120 
[200 

120 
160 
100 

120 
160 
100 

Totals . . 

348 

378 

878 

371 

320 

320  1     320 

380 

380 

*  Including  story-telling. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  above  figures 
are  only  tentative  and  approximate,  and  are 
given  merely  to  show  how  an  apportionment 
may  be  made  under  given  conditions.  It  should 
be  understood  also  that  the  time  given  is  the 
recitation   time  only  of  a  pupil  or  group  of  pu- 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  105 

pils,  and  that  the  time  occupied  outside  of  recita- 
tion in  copying  or  composing  is  not  counted  in 
the  above  schedule.  One  advantage  in  the  way 
of  time  saving  v^hich  composition,  spelhng  and 
writing  have  over  some  other  subjects  should  be 
taken  into  account,  and  that  is  the  practicability 
of  having  all  the  pupils  of  a  school  recite  to- 
gether. 

Course  in  mathematics,  including  arithmetic, 
form  and  geometrical  exercises,  algebra,  and 
bookkeeping. 

1.  Mathematics,  or  the  knowledge  of  quantity 
and  space  relations,  is  taught  both  for  its  practi-  Scope  of  math 
cal  and  for  its  disciplinary  value.  In  the  ele-  ^^^'ics. 
mentary  schools  it  is  taught  mainly  as  an  art, 
although  the  foundations  of  mathematical 
science  are  laid  throughout  the  grammar  school 
course,  and  in  the  upper  grades  something  of 
the  science  itself  is  taught.  The  department  of 
mathematics  chiefly  pursued  in  the  elementary 
schools  is  that  of  arithmetic, — the  elements  of 
geometry  and  algebra  being  taught  in  the  upper 
grades.  To  these  is  added  a  simple  form  of 
book-keeping,  which  may  be  regarded  as  an  ex- 
tension of  the  practical  side  of  arithmetic. 

Arithmetic  is  a  knowledge  of  numbers,  their 
expression,  relations,  and  operations.  The  num-  Arithmetic 
hers  to  be  learned  are  integral  and  fractional, 
simple  and  denominate.  So  much  of  this  knowl- 
edge should  be  acquired  as  will  help  the  pupils 
to  solve  all  the  ordinary  problems  of  daily  life, 
and  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  means  of 
mental  discipline.     The  scope  of  arithmetic   in 


106         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

successive  grades  will  be  determined  largely  by 
the  power  of  the  pupils  to  grasp  new  relations 
and  conditions.  In  recent  courses  a  broad  basis 
of  subjects  has  been  prescribed  for  the  lower 
grades,  including  fractions  (both  common  and 
decimal),  percentage,  and  measurements.  The 
two  kinds  of  work, — computations  with  abstract 
numbers  and  work  in  practical  problems,— should 
be  presented  in  all  grades,  the  amount  of  the 
former  decreasing  and  of  the  latter  increasing 
in  successive  grades. 

The  aim  of  geometry  in  the  grammar  school 
is  chiefly  to  supplement  the  course  in  arithmetic, 

Oeometry.  and  to  furnish  a  good  basis  for  instruction  in 
mechanical  drawing  and  manual  training.  The 
work  required  should  be  both  constructive  and 
inventional,  supplemented  by  as  many  simple 
demonstrations  as  circumstances  will  permit, 
the  aim  being  to  make  the  work  as  practical  as 
possible. 

The  design  of  algebra  in  the  grammar  school 
is  to  give  pupils  a  general  idea  of  numerical  re- 

Alffebra  lations  and  operations.     Besides  furnishing  short 

and  easy  solutions  of  problems  which  are  by 
arithmetic  quite  difficult,  algebra  gives  pupils 
the  power  to  state  in  general  terms  the  condi- 
tions of  a  problem  and  the  process  of  its  solu- 
tion, and  thereby  to  deal  with  formulae  and  rules 
more  easily  than  by  arithmetic.  Moreover,  the 
elementary  work  in  algebra  may  be  so  arranged 
as  to  give  support  to  the  higher  form  of  the 
study  in  the  high  school. 

Bookkeeping  may  be  regarded  as  only  one  of 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  107 

the  many  practical  applications  of  arithmetic. 
Its  end  in  the  grammar  school  is  ability  to  keep  Bookkeeping 
accounts  which  would  be  ordinarily  needed  by  a 
farmer,  mechanic,  or  small  retail  shopkeeper. 
Incidentally  there  will  be  acquired  in  the  study 
some  knowedge  useful  in  higher  forms  of  book- 
keeping. 

2.  The  close  relations  of  the  various  depart- 
ments of  mathematics  to  one  another  are  ap- 
parent.    So  close  are  these  relations  in  the  early  „  ,  ,. 

^  *'     Relations  of 

stages  of  algebra  and  geometry  that  the  subjects  the  various  de- 
may  be  said  to  be  continuous  rather  than  dis-  partments  of 
Crete.     This  is  especially  true  in  many  kinds  of  "mathematics, 
practical  work  in  which  arithmetical  processes 
are  shortened  by  the  use  of  algebraic  symbols, 
and  are  practically  applied  in  geometrical  meas- 
urements. 

The  relation  of  the  subjects  of  this  group  to 
other  subjects  of  study  is  not  so  close  as  to  make 
it  necessary  to  bring  them  together  constantly. 
Yet  the  facts  of  geography,  history,  and  elemen- 
tary science  may  be  sometimes  employed  in 
arithmetical  operations,  to  the  advantage  of  all 
the  subjects  involved. 

3.  Wliile  it  is  true,  as  has  been  said,  that  there 
should  be  a  broad  basis  of  subjects  in  the  lower 
grades  in  the  operations  to  be  performed  with 
numbers,  there  is  a  progressive  order  which 
should  be  prescribed  in  a  course  of  studies. 
This  order  has  to  do  with  the  relative  complexity 
of  processes  and  also  with  the  size  of  the  num- 
bers. In  integral  numl)ers,  the  work  prescribed 
should  be  in   successive   steps,    as   follows:  (a) 


108         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Sequence  of 
work  in  arith- 
metic. 


from  1  to  10,  (6)  from  1  to  20,  (c)  from  1  to  100, 
(d)  from  1  to  1,000,  (e)  from  1  to  1,000,000,  (/) 
unlimited.  lu  fractional  numbers,  the  fractional 
parts  of  numbers  should  be  taught  almost 
from  the  beginning,  and  proceed  in  the  third 
grade  with  fractional  units,  using  in  succession 
halves,  fourths,  eighths,  thirds,  sixths,  twelfths, 
ninths,  fifths,  sevenths,  and  elevenths.  Deci- 
mals begun  as  early  as  the  fourth  grade  should 
be  taught  by  steps  from  tenths,  hundredths,  and 
thousandths,  which  are  the  only  decimals  used 
for  one  year,  to  decimals  of  a  lower  denomina- 
tion. Denominate  numbers  should  be  taught 
from  the  very  beginning,  the  order  of  instruc- 
tion being  generally  from  measures  most  famil- 
iar to  those  that  are  less  familiar. 

The  order  of  teaching  numbers  of  all  kinds 
should  be  first  with  objects  and  afterwards  with- 
out objects,  and  also  first  without  figures  and 
afterwards  with  figures;  the  warning  being 
given  that  too  much  dependence  should  not  be 
placed  upon  aids,  either  by  using  the  objects  too 
long  or  by  employing  figures  unnecessarily  in 
the  solution  of  problems. 

The  sequence  of  steps  in  algebra  and  geome- 
try will  be  indicated  later,  when  their  limita- 
tions are  treated. 

■l.  The  time  allotted  to  arithmetic  should  be 
given  mainly  to  what  may  be  called  the  essen- 
tials of  the  subject,  or  to  such  work  as  will  be 
found  useful  in  everyday  life.  The  following 
topics  will  indicate  the  degree  of  restriction  that 
may  be  made: 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  109 

(1)  correctness   and   rapidity  in   adding,  sub-  Limitations  of 
tracting,  multiplying  and  dividing;  arithmetic. 

(2)  ability  to  work  without  the  aid  of  figures 
in  all  operations,  to  100  in  whole  numbers,  to 
twelfths  in  common  fractions  and  to  thous- 
andths in  decimals ; 

(3)  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  use  of  such  de- 
nominate numbers  as  are  used  ordinarily  in  buy- 
ing and  selling  and  in  keeping  accounts ; 

(-1)  knowledge  of  percentage  and  of  the  simple 
applications  of  percentage,  such  as  are  needed 
in  ordinary  business  affairs ; 

(5)  knowledge  of  geometrical  measurements, 
so  far  as  to  perform  problems  involved  in  the 
ordinary  affairs  of  life. 

It  should  be  understood  that  if  more  is  done 
than  is  comprised  in  the  above  outline,  it  should 
not  be  at  the  expense  of  thoroughness  in  these 
subjects.  It  is  believed  that  a  large  part  of  this 
work  can  be  done  in  the  first  six  grades.  Dur- 
ing the  last  two  grades  one  or  two  lessons  a 
week  might  be  given  to  the' more  difficult  prob- 
lems involved. 

The  geometrical  exercises  of  the  grammar 
school  should  be  limited  to  work  in  mensuration  Limitations  of 
carried  on  in  connection  with  arithmetic,  and  to  S«o"ietiy. 
exercises  of  a  concrete  and  experimental  kind. 
The  following  outline  in  mensuration,  followed 
in  the  Springfield,  Mass.,  course,  sufficiently  in- 
dicates the  needed  limitations  of  this  part  of  the 
subject : 

A.  Surfaces. — (1)  Parts,  (a)  number  of  sides, 


110         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

(6)  relative  direction  of  sides  (whether  parallel, 
perpeDdicular,  etc.),  (c)  angles. 

(2)  Comparison  with  other  surfaces  as  to  (a), 

(b)  and  {c). 

(3)  Length  of  perimeter  or  circumference. 
(4)  Area. 

B.  Solids. — (1)  Parts,  (a)  number  of  faces,  (6) 
kinds  of  faces,  (plane  or  curved),  (c)  number  of 
edges,  id)  relative  direction  of  faces  (whether 
parallel,  perpendicular,  etc. 

(2)  Comparison  with  other  solids  as  to  (a),  (6), 

(c)  and  {d). 

(3)  Length  of  all  the  edges.     (4)  Surface  area. 
(5)  Volume  or  solid  contents. 

^■^'The  limitations  of  work  prescribed  in  experi- 
mental and  constructive  geometry  should  not  be 
too  strictly  drawn.  The  better  way  will  be  to 
present  an  outline  from  which  teachers  may 
select  work  adapted  to  the  ability  of  their  pupils. 
Such  an  outline  may  include : 

(1)  definition  of   volume,   surface,  line,   angle 

(2)  definitions  of  various  kinds  of  lines 

(3)  definitions  of  various  kinds  of  angles 

(4)  division  of  line  into  any  number  of  equal 
parts 

(5)  construction  of  angles  of  various  magni- 
tudes 

(6)  definitions  of  various  kinds  of  triangles, 
parts,  etc. 

(7)  problems  relating  to  angles  and  sides  of 
triangles 

(8)  definitions  of  quadrilateral  and  kinds  of 
quadrilaterals 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  111 

(9)  problems  relating  to  angles  and  sides  of 
parallelograms 

(10)  definitions  of  pentagon,  hexagon,  hepta- 
gon, etc. 

(11)  problems  relating  to  the  construction  of 
polygons 

(12)  problems  relating  to  the  division  of  poly- 
gons 

(13)  problems  relating  to  the  construction  of 
similar  polygons 

(1-4)  definitions  of  circle  and  parts  of  circle 

(15)  problems  relating  to  diameter,  circumfer- 
ence, arc,  chord,  secant  and  tangent 

(16)  definitions  of  various   kinds  of    volumes 

(17)  problems  in  relation  to  the  surfaces  of 
volumes 

(18)  problems  in  relation  to  the  solid  contents 
of  volumes. 

The  problems  indicated  in  the  above  outline 
may  be  either  concrete  and  constructive,  or 
demonstrative,  depending  upon  the  ability  of  a 
class  or  of  the  individual  pupils  of  a  class. 

If  the  purposes  of  algebra  in  the  grammar 
school  are  as  indicated  in  a  previous  paragraph, 
its  limitations  might  be  somewhat  as  follows: 

(1)  algebraic  notation 

(2)  simple    arithmetical    problems,    solved  by  Limitations  of 

algebra  algebra. 

(3)  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and 
division 

(4)  factoring  of  simple  algebraic  quantities 

(5)  reduction  of  fractions 


112         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

(6)  resolving  of  equations  containing  one  and 
two  unknown  quantities 

(7)  practical  problems  involving  the  foregoing. 
Course  in  eleiiientary  science,  including  nature 

study,  geography,  physiology  and  hygiene,  infor- 
mation lessons  relating  to  science,  geography,  and 
physiology  and  hygiene. 

1.  The  immediate  end  of  all  the  studies  of  this 
group  is  a  knowledge  of  nature,  including  man 
and  all  that  is  below  man.  The  term  nature 
study  in  recent  years  has  been  made  to  cover  the 
study  of  plants,  animals,  and  minerals,  and  the 
elementary  work  done  in  physics  and  chemistry. 
This  group  also  includes  physiology  and  hygiene 
and  geography. 

While  it  may  be  necessary  in  nature  study  to 
What  is  in-        lead  the  pupils  to  learn  through  observation  the 

eluded  m  facts   of  nature,  they   will   learn   them  not  for 

nature  study.       ,,     .  ,  •    -,     r-       ji  ,i 

their  own  sake,  nor  mamly  tor  the  use  they  will 

make  of  them  later  in  the  study  of  science,  but 
for  the  habits  of  observation  which  the  lessons 
will  help  to  form  and  for  the  abiding  love  of 
nature  which  they  will  help  to  arouse.  These 
^  two  ends,  therefore,  the  formation  of  habits  of 
observation  and  the  arousing  of  a  love  for  nature, 
will  determine  largely  the  character  and  extent 
of  the  study.  It  will  include  in  their  appropriate 
season  the  observation  of  minerals,  plants  and 
animals,  and  some  of  the  more  apparent  physi- 
cal forces. 

These  observation  lessons  will  fail  to  produce 
the  desired  ends  if  they  stop  with  a  knowledge 
merely  of  what  is  observed.     The  interpretation 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  113 

of  phenomena  is  of  more  value  than  the  mere 
observation  of  them  as  facts.  The  adaptation 
of  parts  of  animals  and  plants  to  the  uses  they 
perform  will  early  become  an  object  of  inquiry. 
It  should  be  observed  that  while  a  love  for  nature 
is  the  primary  end  of  nature  study,  it  cannot  be 
reached  by  simply  talking  about  the  objects  ob- 
served. Such  lessons  may  drift  into  mere  senti- 
mental reflections  of  httle  value.  The  facts 
must  be  learned  not  by  reading  or  hearing,  but 
by  observing,  and  those  facts  should  be  reviewed 
frequently  enough  to  be  readily  brought  to  mind. 
The  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  includes 
in  its  scope  such  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  Scope  of  physi- 
the  body  and  the  uses   of  the  various  parts   as  ^^^^/  '^^  ^ 

study 

will  help  the  pupils  to  have  respect  for  the  body 
and  to  keep  it  in  health  and  strength.  Practical- 
ness of  aim  in  this  study  should  be  paramount, 
especially  in  the  direction  of  forming  good  hab- 
its and  of  preventing  bad  ones. 

Through  the  study  of  geograph}'  the  pupils 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  earth  as  the  home  rp^^.^^  elements 
of  man.  There  are  two  elements,  therefore,  of  in  geography. 
this  branch  of  study;  first,  nature,  in  making 
the  earth  suitable  for  human  habitation;  and, 
second,  the  people,  in  making  it  a  place  in  which 
all  the  activities  of  life  are  carried  on.  So  far 
as  possil)le,  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  earth 
should  be  interpretive  knowledge,  or  knowledge 
by  which  they  may  understand  the  relations  to 
human  life  of  its  various  features,  such  as  cli- 
mate, surface,  soil,  etc. 

2.   The   facts   acquired   in   nature    study    are 


114         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Relations  of 
the  subjects  in 
elementary 


Comparative 
anatomy  and 
physiology. 


closely  related  to  the  primary  facts  of  geogra- 
phy; indeed,  many  of  the  facts  of  nature  study 
and  geography  are  identical.  The  subjects  of 
study  in  these  two  branches  should  therefore  be 
arranged  in  the  course  with  reference  to  pur- 
poses of  correlation ;  and  where  it  is  possible  the 
relations  should  be  made  to  appear,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  effects  of  running  water  as  a  topic  of 
nature  study,  and  the  study  of  relief  forms  as 
a  topic  of  geography. 

The  relations  also  of  one  or  both  of  these 
branches  to  arithmetic  and  history  should  be  in- 
dicated. Probably  no  subjects  in  the  course 
will  be  found  to  be  more  serviceable  for  compo- 
sition and  for  drawing  than  these.  If  such  re- 
lations are  not  indicated  in  the  course,  oppor- 
tunity at  least  should  be  afforded  for  abundant 
practice  in  expressing  by  various  ways  the  facts 
acquired. 

In  the  lower  grades'  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences of  the  human  structure  and  that  of  the 
lower  animals  should  be  objects  of  study,  and 
in  the  higher  grades  the  connection  of  the  facts 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  with  those  of  chem- 
istry and  physics  should  be  made  to  appear.  In 
all  grades  the  relation  of  parts  of  the  body  to 
their  uses  and  of  the  uses  to  health  and  strength 
should  be  shown. 

3.  The  allotment  of  work  in  nature  study  to 
be  done  in  a  given  time,  whether  it  be  for  a  year 
or  a  day,  should  be  determined  by  the  pupils' 
natural  powers,  both  of  observation  and  of  in- 
terpretation.    With    young    children,    little   is 


The  Superintendent  as   Organize!'  115 

gained  by  establishing  a  fixed-  order  of  presenta- 
tion.    In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  obser-  ^^[i^^^^^of 

1111  1     X  subjects  HI 

vations  should  be  made  first  ' '  m  the  large  ' '  and  nature  study 
afterward  more  minutely;  but  if  children  are  ^nd  geogm- 
interested  in  the  parts  of  an  object  very  early  in  ^^^^^" 
their  observations  attention  should  be  given  to 
them,  especially  if  the  interest  centres  in  the 
uses  of  the  parts.  It  is  always  a  safe  rule  to 
teach  those  things  which  will  best  serve  as  inter- 
preters of  other  things  of  value  for  the  child  to 
know.  On  the  same  principle,  a  clear  and  defi- 
nite knowledge  of  home  surroundings  is  neces- 
sary to  a  proper  knowledge  of  distant  features 
and  conditions.  A  knowledge  by  observation  of 
a  hill  range  will  be  the  means  of  interpreting  the 
distant  mountain  range  described  in  the  book. 
As  far  as  possible  also  the  logical  order  should 
be  followed  in  teaching  the  various  topics.  The 
situation  and  surface  of  a  continent  or  country 
may  determine  to  some  extent  the  climate  and 
rainfall, — a  knowledge  of  which  helps  the  pupils 
to  infer  what  the  productions  and  the  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  are. 

In  anatomy  and  physiology,   the  practice    in 
the  best  schools  of  deferring  the  teaching  of  the     "P'^^'"  ^"'\- 

^  ^  omy  ana  pliysi- 

internal  structure  of   the  body  until   the   later  „]„gy  for  iiigh 
years  of  the  grammar  school  seems  wise ;  as  also  <'r  grades, 
is  the  practice  of  making  domestic  and  public 
hygiene  a  prominent  feature  of  the  course  in  the 
upper  grades  of  the  grammar  school  and  in  the 
high  school. 

4.   In  determining  the  amount  to  be  done  the 
two  chief  ends  of  nature   study  should  be  kept 


116         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Ends  and  limi- 
tations of 
nature  study. 


Limitations  in 
the  study  of 
anatomy  and 
physiology. 


Place  and 
scope  of 
history. 


in  mind.  To  form  good  habits  of  observation 
and  to  acquire  a  love  of  nature,  there  should  be 
no  forcing  of  acquisition.  In  no  study  will  it  be 
found  more  necessary  to  be  led  by  the  natural 
aptitudes  and  desires  of  the  children  than  in  the 
study  of  plants,  animals,  and  minerals.  While 
it  may  be  well  to  lay  before  the  teachers  a  wide 
field  for  observation,  it  should  be  understood 
that  such  selection  of  the  work  assigned  may  be 
made  as  will  be  best  suited  to  given  conditions. 
Again  a  broad  range  of  topics  will  furnish  the 
needed  extra  and  optional  work  for  some  pupils 
aready  spoken  of. 

Strictness  in  limiting  the  study  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  to  practical  ends  should  be  care- 
fully observed.  No  subjects  should  be  taught 
which  are  not  clearly  seen  to  have  some  bearing 
upon  every-day  life. 

Course  in  history,  including  biography  and 
civil  government. 

1.  The  place  and  scope  of  history  as  a  branch 
of  study  have  materially  changed  in  recent 
years.  Instead  of  occupying,  as  it  once  did, 
a  small  part  of  the  last  year  or  two  of  the  gram- 
mar school  course,  it  is  now  in  the  best  schools 
begun  in  the  first  year  and  carried  on  throughout 
the  course;  and,  instead  of  being  a  dry  and 
profitless  study  of  wars  and  dates,  it  has  come 
to  be  regarded  as  a  study  both  pleasurable  and 
useful  as  a  means  of  culture.  According  to  this 
later  view  of  the  subject,  its  purpose  from  the 
first  should  be  to  inspire  the  pupils  with  high 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  117 

ideals  of  life,  both  as  citizens  and  as  members  of 
society. 

Moreover,  to  lead  the  pupils  to  acquire  a  taste 
for  history,  the  subject  should  be  made  interest- 
ing from  the  first.  Myths,  fairy  stories,  and 
stories  of  semicivihzed  and  colonial  life  should 
be  told  to  and  read  by  the  children  in  the  lower 
grades,  to  be  continued  each  year  by  the  reading 
of  stories  of  biography  and  of  American  history 
in  chronological  order  in  the  middle  grades,  and 
by  the  studyof  English  and  American  history  in 
the  higher.  All  phases  of  social,  civil,  and  insti- 
tutional life  are  to  be  presented  to  the  children  in 
forms  suited  to  their  interest  and  capacity. 
Thus  we  see  that  history,  which  is  a  record  of 
the  growth  of  a  people  from  their  earliest  to  their 
present  state,  includes  biography  and  civil  gov- 
ernment as  well  as  history  proper. 

2.  As  history  teaches  all  sides  of  life,  it  stands 
in  close  relation  to  all  the  other  studies  of  the 

1        T       1  •   1  T  1  i.  •  Relation  ot 

school  which  are  supposed  to  be  a  preparation  iiistoryto other 
for  life:  to  arithmetic,  in  furnishing  material  for  studies. 
computations ;  to  science,  in  showing  the  analo- 
gies of  the  evolution  of  the  race  and  that  of  the 
individual;  to  geography,  in  the  use  of  charts 
and  maps,  and  in  furnishing  a  basis  of  compari- 
son whereby  the  present  conditions  of  social  and 
civil  life  are  better  known;  to  literature,  in  pro- 
viding the  basis  of  much  of  the  finest  forms  of 
the  oration,  the  ballad,  the  drama  and  the 
epic;  and  to  drawing  and  language,  in  awaken- 
ing thoughts  that  deserve  the  pupils'  best  efforts 
of  expression. 


lis         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

While  most  of  these  relations  cannot  appear 
in  a  course  of  studies,  they  must  be  considered 
in  giving  history  its  proper  place.  In  literature 
especially  should  the  close  relation  of  history  be 
recognized  in  the  course  of  studies.  There  are 
phases  of  history  that  can  best  be  known  through 
literature,  as  there  are  forms  of  literature  that 
can  be  fully  interpreted  only  by  a  knowledge  of 
history. 

3.  While  the  order  of  topics  will  depend  some- 
Sequence  of  what  upon  the  interest  and  capacity  of  the  pu- 
subjects.           pils,  there  is  now  a  generally  recognized  order  of 

presentation  which  should  be  embodied  in  a 
course.  The  first  year  or  two  may  be  given  to  the 
telling  and  reading  of  folk-lore  and  fairy  stories, 
myths  and  fables.  These  should  be  followed  by 
reading  stories  of  Indian  and  early  settlement 
life,  supplemented  by  biographical  stories.  As 
soon  as  the  pupils  are  ready  for  it,  and  before  the 
consecutive  reading  and  study  of  American  his- 
tory are  begun,  attention  should  be  given  to  in- 
teresting facts  of  local  history,  such  as  scenes  of 
celebrated  events,  early  settlers,  and  well-known 
traditions.  Consecutive  topical  study  in  connec- 
tion with  the  reading  of  both  American  and 
English  history  should  be  prescribed  for  the  last 
years  of  the  course. 

4.  The  limitations  of  subject-matter  in  history 
should  be  determined  largely  by  the  limitations 
of  time  and  by  the  demands  of  other  subjects. 
Not  even  a  minimum  of  requirements  should  be 
prescribed,  so  far  at  least  as  such  requirements 
are  made  a  basis  for  marking  or  examinations. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organize)'  119 

In  this,  as  in  no  other  subject,  may  the  amount 
read  and  studied  be  adapted  to  the  abilities  of  Limitations  of 
each  individual  pupil.  If  the  work  required  to  -rhistorr"'' 
be  done  be  given  out  and  recited  by  subjects  or 
topics,  each  pupil  may  learn  as  much  of  each 
subject  or  topic  as  time  and  abihty  will  permit. 
The  course  therefore  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
permit  the  greatest  degree  of  freedom  in  teach- 
ing the  subject.  If  this  is  done,  and  examina- 
tions have  their  proper  place,  the  teachers  alone 
will  be  responsible  if  the  pupils  have  not  a  lov- 
ing interest  in  the  subject,  not  only  while  they 
are  being  taught,  but  also  after  they  have  left 
school. 

Course  iu  drawing,  industrial  training,  singing 
and  physical  culture. 

1.  In  no  branch  of  instruction  has  there  been 
a  greater  change  of  place  and  scope  than  in 
drawing.  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  number  of 
public  schools  in  which  drawing  was  systemati- 
cally taught  was  very  small.  Now  the  schools 
in  which  it  is  not  taught  are  as  rare  as  were  the 
schools  formerly  where  it  was  taught. 

At  first  the  cultivation  of  the  aesthetic  sense 
was  considered  the  only  end  to  be  sought,  and  r'urposc  and 
it   was   in   some   way    thought    to   be   reached  ,i,.,j^yiug  ^g  ^ 
through  drawing  endless  castles  and  rustic  mills  study. 
from  flat  copies.     Later,  the  dominant  purpose 
seemed  to  be  to  make  the  subject  as  practical  as 
possible.     This  was  effected    by   the    introduc- 
tion  of  mechanical   drawing,  which   had   little 
relation  to  practical  mechanics,  and  which  was 
generally  a  laborious  and  tedious  process  to  all 


120         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

concerned.  Gradually  these  two  ideas  of  the 
purpose  of  drawing  as  a  branch  of  study  have 
been  supplemented  by  a  third,  which  is  that 
drawing  is  educational,  and  serves  to  train  all 
the  powers  of  the  mind. 

As  such  the  subject  has  its  strongest  claim  for 
a  place  in  the  programme.  With  this  later  idea 
of  the  function  of  drawing  have  come  improved 
methods  of  teaching  the  subject,  which  serve  to 
accomplish  in  good  ways  the  ends  that  were  for- 
merly sought :  of  aesthetics,  by  leading  the  pupils 
to  draw  and  to  use  colors  in  imitation  of  nature 
and  to  appreciate  by  observation  and  study  the 
most  beautiful  works  of  art;  and  of  practical- 
ness, by  drawing  free-hand  from  objects,  and  by 
connecting  closely  the  mechanical  part  of  the 
subject  with  the  work  of  manual  training  and 
with  the  every-day  uses  of  life. 

If  by  industrial  training  is  meant  the  careful 
observation  of  and  practice  in  the  various  indus- 
tries of  the  home  and  community  we  can  readily 
Claims  of  in-     ggg  j^g  extended  scope  as  including  all  those  sub- 

dustrial  train-       ..         />jt  i-i  •  ix-ii 

^  jects  of  study  which  are  m  any  way  related  to 

vocational  service,  especially  to  service  that  can 
be  rendered  with  the  hands.  The  best  manual 
training  is  no  longer  confined  to  working  in  wood 
nor  is  its  end  merely  discipline  or  dexterity  in 
the  use  of  tools.  As  a  school  study  it  is  preemi- 
nently practical,  helping  alike  to  train  the  mind 
and  to  prepare  for  life.  Its  claims  to  a  place  in 
the  course  of  studies  are : 

(1)  it  teaches  dexterity  of  hand 

(2)  it  trains  to  habits  of  order  and  neatness 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  121 

(3)  it  cultivates  a  sense  of  truth  and  right  by 
demanding  exactness  of  details 

(4)  it  cultivates  the  will  in  its  requirements  of 
persistence  until  an  object  is  completed 

(5)  it  serves  as  a  valuable  aid  to  drawing  and 
art  studies 

(6)  it  cultivates  the  ethical  sense  in  enabling 
pupils  to  make  useful  objects 

(7)  it  serves  to  offset  the  strain  of  intellectual 
work 

(8)  it  encourages  respect  for  manual  labor. 
The  reasons  for  making  singing  a  regular  and 

systematic  subject  of  instruction  are  that  it  ^^''P*^^^,  °f 
affords  rest  and  recreation,  is  a  means  of  healthy  singing, 
exercise,  and  cultivates  the  aesthetic,  ethical,  and 
religious  sense.  Governed  by  these  ends,  the 
aim  and  scope  of  singing  as  a  subject  of  instruc- 
tion are  clearly  (1)  to  train  the  ear  so  as  to  ap- 
preciate and  enjoy  good  music ;  and  (2)  to  under- 
stand and  be  able  to  sing  at  sight  any  ordinary 
secular  or  sacred  piece  of  music. 

2.  The  relation  of  drawing  to  manual  training 
is  so  close  that  each  may  be  said  to  be  incom- 
plete as  a  subject  of  instruction  without  the  ,i,^,^^!^i,""  ^o 
other.  Both  subjects  also  are  closely  connected  other  subjects. 
with  geometrical  measurements.  Drawing  as 
a  form  of  expression  is  closely  related  to  every 
other  subject  of  study:  to  literature  in  illus- 
trated sketches,  to  arithmetic  in  plans  and  work- 
ing drawings,  and  to  history  and  geography  in 
diagrams  and  maps.  In  fact,  it  may  be  used  as 
other  forms  of  expression  are  used,  and  in  some 
cases  it  may  be  used  profitably  when  other  means 


122 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Relation  of 
singing  to 
other  subjects. 


Sequence 
of  steps  in 
drawing. 


fail  to  express  the  thought  or  feehng.  The 
broadened  scope  of  industrial  training  as  a  sub- 
ject of  study  gives  it  a  central  place  in  the  school 
programme.  Other  subjects  like  arithmetic,  lan- 
guage, geography,  and  elementary  science  may 
be  closely  related  to  it  and  be  enriched  by  it. 

In  the  lower  grades  the  placing  of  singing  in 
close  relation  to  the  reading  and  nature  exercises 
and  to  the  morning  talk  is  made  very  effective. 

The  use  of  singing  tones  has  come  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  valuable  means  of  securing  good 
speaking  tones,  just  as  the  phonic  exercises  in 
spoken  tones  have  been  found  helpful  in  develop- 
ing a  good  singing  tone.  Singing  is  also  benefi- 
cial in  connection  with  some  of  the  physical  ex- 
ercises in  the  lower  grades. 

3.  Skill  in  the  subjects  of  this  group,  as  in  all 
technical  subjects,  will  depend  upon  the  fidelity 
with  which  the  successive  steps  are  taken.  No- 
where is  a  close  application  of  the  maxims 
' '  from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown  ' '  and 
"  from  the  simple  to  the  complex  "  more  neces- 
sary than  in  connection  with  these  subjects. 

In  the  early  stages  of  drawing  as  at  present 
pursued  there  is  a  free  expression  of  ideas 
through  illustrative  sketching  without  reference 
to  principles.  Attention  is  then  given  to  form 
with  special  reference  to  correct  proportion  and 
outline,  succeeded  by  exercises  which  give  skill 
in  rendering  characteristic  detail.  Finally,  there 
is  sought  to  be  secured  a  full  and  free  expres- 
sion of   grace  of  form   and  harmony  of   color. 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  123 

In  the  mechanical  side  of  drawing  the  succes- 
sive steps  are: 

(1)  exercises  in  precision,  as  paper  folding  and 
cutting 

(2)  exercises  in  accurate  measurement 

(3)  accurate  drawing  of  surfaces  of  given  di- 
mensions 

(4)  conventional  grouping  of  figures  to  express 
solidity 

(5)  drawing  to  scale. 

So  far  as  the  occupations  of  the  kindergarten 
are  educative,  they  are  but  the  beginning  of  a  Progressive 
series  of  manual   exercises  which  should  have  exercises  iu 
no    break    throughout    the    elementary   school  ™^°"'^ 
course.     In   the    earlier  stages   of   the   course, 
paper  and  card  board  should  be  extensively  used, 
and  always  in  close  connection  with  drawing, 
for   the   purpose   mainly  of  developing  manual 
dexterity.     In  the  later  stages  exercises  to  teach 
the  use  of  tools  should  be  given,  and  applications 
of  what  has  been  learned  should  be  made  in  the 
manufacture  of  useful  objects. 

In  singing,  care  should  be  observed  that  the 
steps  of  technique  be  taken  in  a  natural  order,   A  natural  order 
and  that  the  demands   upon  the  children  keep      '^       ^' 
pace  with  their  vocal  powers  and  musical  ap- 
preciation. 

4:.   Within   the   scope   and   time   already  kiid 

T  ,,  T     ,  .  T      -i    i-  ■       A  iniiiiinum  of 

down,    there   need   be   given   no  hmitations  m  ^voriiin  draw- 
drawing  and  manual  training  beyond  what   is  ing  ami  manual 
necessary  under  a  class  system  of  instruction,   inunuig. 
Here,  as  in   other   branches,    the   minimum    of 
what  is  expected  to  be  done  may  be  prescribed, 


124         ScJiool  Organization  and  Supervision 


Limitations  in 
singing. 


The  advan- 
tages of  class 
instruction. 


Two  ways  of 
classification. 


together  with  extra  or  extended  work  to  suit  the 
circumstances. 

Limitations  in  singing  should  be  made  in  two 
directions :  first,  in  respect  to  the  time  of  learn- 
ing the  language  of  music;  and,  second,  in  re- 
spect to  reach  of  tones.  Before  the  language  of 
music  is  learned  the  child  needs  to  acquire  a 
musical  sense ;  that  is,  a  love  for  and  apprecia- 
tion of  music.  For  this  reason  two  or  three 
years  of  careful  practice  in  simple  phonic  exer- 
cises and  rote  songs  should  be  spent  before  sign 
reading  is  begun.  Such  exercises  are  also  needed 
for  a  proper  development  of  strength  and  sweet- 
ness of  tone.  The  danger  of  overstraining 
young  children's  voices  is  avoided  by  confining 
the  exercises  during  the  first  year  to  the  lower 
tones. 

The  classiflcjition  and  promotion  of  pupils. — The 
classification  of  a  school  is  made  upon  the  theory 
that  a  group  of  pupils  of  nearly  equal  ability 
can  be  taught  more  effectively  together  than 
separately.  There  is  an  undoubted  saving  of 
time  in  the  presentation  of  facts  or  in  a  teaching 
exercise  with  a  number  of  pupils  together  over 
the  same  exercise  repeated  to  individual  pupils. 
In  addition  to  this  advantage  of  classification 
there  is  the  benefit  of  increased  interest  which  is 
always  felt  in  the  contact  of  pupils  with  one  an- 
other. 

There  are  in  general  two  ways  of  classifica- 
tion— first,  that  of  measuring  off  what  it  is 
thought  pupils  can  do  in  given  periods  of  time 
and   putting   them    into  corresponding   groups; 


The  Superintendent  as  Organizei-        .  125 

and  secondly  that  of  separating  the  pupils  ac- 
cording to  ability  into  groups  of  a  desirable  size 
and  allotting  the  work  of  each  group.  By  one 
method  there  is  a  fitting  of  the  pupils  to  the 
work  required  and  by  the  other  there  is  an  ad- 
justment of  the  work  to  the  pupils. 

It  can  be  readily  seen  that  a  formal  following 
of  the  first  named  plan  both  in  classification  and 
promotions  from  class  to  class  may  be  very  sim-  A  faulty 
pie  and  smooth  in  its  working.     To  the  school  niethod  of 
official  whose  eye  is  upon  the  machine  only  it  is  ^^^^°  '°°- 
all  that    can  be  desired.     If  there  are  eight  or 
nine  classes  each  with  a  year's  work  to  do,  the 
method  of  promotion  is  simply  to  put  forward 
those  who  have  passed  the  requirements,  and  to 
*'  keep  back  "  those  who  have  not   passed   the 
requirements. 

The  ideal  of  mechanical  smoothness  is  reached  * 
when  the  test  of  fitness  for  a  higher  class  consists 
solely  of  passing  an  examination  given  by  the 
school  board  or  superintendent.  Those  who 
have  attained  the  standard  set  of  seventy  or 
eighty  per  cent  may  go  on  and  take  up  the  sub- 
sequent work.  Those  who  have  fallen  short  of 
such  a  standard  by  one-half  of  one  per  cent  must 
repeat  the  work  of  the  year.  Such  formerly 
was  the  method  pursued  in  many  places  and  in 
some  essential  features  is  still  pursued. 

The  possible  unfairness  of  the  test  of  a  single 
examination  has  caused  many  superintendents  i''o">o*'0"« 
to  modify  and  extend  the  test  so  far  as  to  give  ^j,,^,,,.  ,.3.,,,^. 
the  pupils  a  better  opportunity  to  prove^their  fit-  inations. 
ness  to  do  the  required  work.     In  recent  years 


126         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

other  serious  defects  of  prevailing  methods  of 
promotion  have  become  apparent  and  many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  meet  the  difficulties 
of  adjusting  the  work  to  the  needs  of  individual 
pupils.  But  under  the  best  plans  of  pronaotions 
there  are  such  inequalities  of  attainment  in  every 
large  class  that  it  is  found  very  difficult  if  not 
impossible  fully  to  meet  the  needs  of  individual 
pupils.  The  duller  or  slower  pupils  of  a  class 
are  either  unduly  stimulated  or  discouraged  by 
the  demands  placed  upon  them,  while  at  least 
some  of  the  brighter  or  quicker  pupils  are  being 
repressed  and  insufficiently  employed.  The  fol- 
lowing brief  statement  of  plans  taken  in  part 
from  actual  experience  will'  indicate  how  the  ob- 
jections to  class  promotions  may  in  a  measure 
be  overcome  and  will  illustrate  ways  of  adapta- 
tion to  circumstances. 

Plan  A. — Two  sections,  six  months  apart  in 
attainments  are  placed  in  a  room  under  a  teacher, 
the  advance  section  being  designated  A  and  the 
other  B.  These  sections  recite  together  in  some 
subjects,  such  as  singing,  drawing,  and  nature 
study,  while  other  exercises  are  given  to  the  sec- 
Two  sections      tions  separately.     If  thought  best  by  the  teacher, 

five  months  ,i  -i       r  iu     i  i.-  -j^x    t 

worthy  pupils  of  the  lower  section  are  permitted 
to  do  some  of  the  work  of  the  upper  section  with 
the  expectation  of  passing  into  the  next  higher 
class  with  the  latter  named  section.  In  some 
instances  also,  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  time, 
pupils  of  one  room  are  permitted  to  recite  in  one"* 
or  two  subjects  with  the  pupils  of  a  higher  grade 
or  class. 


apart. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  127 

One  month  before  the  close  of  a  semester, 
teachers  are  asked  to  give  to  the  superintendent 
of  schools  or  supervising  principal  a  list  of  pupils 
of  whose  promotion  there  is  no  doubt,  another 
list  of  pupils  v^hose  detention  in  the  section  for  ^^'^  ^^^e  of 
another  half  year  is  also  unquestionable,  and  a  Ljpjisonlv 
third  list  consisting  of  those  whose  place  during  considered. 
the  next  semester  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
teacher,  uncertain.  During  the  last  month  of 
the  semester  the  superintendent  or  principal  gives 
special  attention  to  the  last  named  list  of  pupils, 
questioning  them  upon  important  points,  and 
under  his  direction  all  the  teachers  of  each  grade 
prepare  examination  questions  for  the  doubtful 
pupils.  The  results  of  this  test,  together  with  the 
impressions  of  the  teacher  and  superintendent, 
help  the  latter  to  determine  whether  the  doubt- 
ful pupils  shall  be  promoted  unconditionally,  or 
be  required  to  repeat  some  or  all  of  the  last  semes- 
ter's work,  or  be  permitted  to  pass  into  the 
higher  section  on  probation  for  one  month.  It 
should  be  said  that  throughout  the  course  special 
notices  are  sent  to  the  parents  of  those  pupils 
who  are  falling  behind  in  their  work.  By  this 
means  the  active  assistance  and  co-operation  of 
parents  are  secured.  It  will  be  seen  that  pupils 
under  this  plan  are  given  an  opportunity  to  do 
their  best,  and  that  not  all  the  pupils  are  made 
to  fear  examinations  which  have  to  be  passed  by 
a  few  only. 

Plan  B. — The  interval  between  the  grammar 
grades  is  one  year  in  length,  each  primary  grade 
being  divided  into  sections  according  to  the  abil- 


128         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Intervals  be- 
tween gram- 
mar grades 
one  year. 


Allotted  work 
for  year  gone 
over  in  five 
months. 


Progress  in 
sequential  sub- 
jects, the  basis 
for  promotion. 


ity  of  the  pupils.  As  there  are  three  or  more 
sections  in  each  primary  grade,  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  classes  there  are  so  short  as  to  permit 
frequent  transfers  from  one  class  to  another, 
the  section  rather  than  the  grade  being  the  unit 
of  promotion.  The  nominal  time  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  primary  school  course  is  three 
years,  but  many  are  able  to  complete  it  in  much 
less  time. 

In  each  of  the  grammar  grades  the  essential 
features  of  the  entire  work  prescribed  for  the 
year  are  taken  during  the  first  half  year,  and 
those  pupils  who  have  successfully  performed 
the  work,  especially  in  sufch  sequential  subjects 
as  arithmetic  and  grammar,  at  the  end  of  the 
half  year  are  promoted  to  the  next  higher  grade. 
During  the  second  half  year  a?  more  minute  study 
of  the  topics  in  language  and  arithmetic  already 
pursued  is  made,  by  which  an  opportunity  is 
afforded  for  new  pupils  to  do  the  work  of  the 
grade,  and  for  those  who  have  done  it  imper- 
fectly to  review  it.  By  this  plan  bright  pupils 
are  given  the  opportunity  of  passing  through 
two  grades  in  one  year.  All  promotions,  special 
as  well  as  regular,  are  made  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  superintendent,  the  teacher's  judg- 
ment being  a  large  determining  factor. 

Two  characteristics  of  this  plan  are  noticeable 
— first  going  over  the  allotted  year's  work  in 
some  subjects  during  the  first  half  year,  and 
secondly  making  the  sequential  subjects  the  chief 
guide  in  determining  promotions. 

Plan  C. — The    sub-division   of   classes   men- 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  129 

tioned  in  plan  B  is  carried  into  the  grammar 
grades,  so  far  as  to  enable  pupils  in  all  schools 
to  pass  easily  from  one  grade  to  another.  The  Short  intervals 
yearly  programme  of  studies  is  placed  before  'between 
each  teacher,  mainly  as  a  guide  to  the  order  of 
work  to  be  followed.  If  one  of  the  sections  is 
able  in  a  given  time  to  take  up  a  portion  of  the 
work  allotted  to  a  subsequent  year,  it  is  permit- 
ted to  do  so,  the  teacher  into  whose  hands  the 
section  goes  beginning  after  necessary  reviews 
where  the  previous  teacher  left  off.  Reliance  is 
placed  almost  wholly  upon  the  teacher's  judgment 
as  to  the  amount  of  work  to  be  accomplished  in 
the  given  time  and  also  as  to  the  ability  of  pu- 
pils to  take  up  the  subsequent  work.  By  this 
plan  a  greater  or  less  departure  is  made  from  .  "^'^  /^  ""'•^ 

i^  <=>  ^  in  grades. 

the  yearly  standards  of  work  allotted,  and  in- 
creased opportunity  is  afforded  for  individual 
promotions. 

Plan  D. — Each  grade  of  the  primary  school, 
covering  three  years,  is  separated  into  groups  as 
in  Plan  B.     The  grammar  school  course  covers 
six  years'  time  of  pupils  of  average  ability.     A  Three  rates  of 
few  weeks  after  the  pupils  enter  the  grammar  ^p^'^'  "^  p*''- 

^     ^  °  forming  the 

school,  in  September,  they  are  separated  into  same  work, 
two  divisions,  according  to  ability,  one  division 
called  grade  A,  and  the  other  division  called 
fourth  grade.  The  pupils  of  grade  A  move  for- 
ward with  the  aim  of  completing  the  prescribed 
grammar  school  course  in  four  years,  succeeding 
grades  being  called  B,  C,  and  D.  The  pui)ils  of 
the  fourth  grade  go  forward  more  slowly,  aim- 


130         School  Organization  and  Sujjervision 

ing  to  do  each  year  only  one-sixth  of  the  work 
prescribed  for  the  grammar  school. 

The  grades  of  these  pupils  in  succeeding  years 
are  known  as  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth.*  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year 
the  pupils  of  what  was  grade  A,  now  called 
grade  B,  go  into  a  room  with  pupils  of  the  sixth 
grade.  During  the  first  part  of  the  year  the  pu- 
pils of  the  sixth  grade  are  in  advance  of  the  pu- 
pils of  grade  B,  but,  owing  to  the  superior  ability 
of  the  latter  division,  they  all  come  together 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  year.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  year  precisely  the  same 
conditions  exist  as  existed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  first  year.  The  pupils  of  grade  C  recite  with 
the  pupils  of  the  seventh  grade  for  a  few  weeks, 
when  a  readjustment  is  made,  the  abler  pupils 
moving  on  at  a  pace  sufficiently  rapid  to  finish 
the  course  in  two  years,  leaving  the  others  to 
finish  it  in  three  years. 

The  fifth  grade  pupils  are  alone  in  a  room 
under  one  teacher  during  an  entire  year;  the 
same  is  true  of  the  eighth  grade  pupils.  In  all 
other  rooms  there  are  two  grades  or  divisions, 
one  belonging  to  the  four  years'  course  and  the 
other  to  the  six  years'  course. 

A  pupil  who  begins  with  the  fourth  grade  and 
remains  in  the  slower  division  to  the  end  of  the 
course  will  graduate  in  six  years,  unless  he  has 

*If  there  is  a  sub-primary  class  consisting  of 
two  or  three  groups  of  pupils,  the  grades  in  the 
primary  and  grammar  school  will  be  numbered 
from  one  to  egiht. 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  131 

to  repeat.  A  pupil  who  begins  with  grade  A 
and  remains  in  the  more  rapid  divisions  to  the 
end  of  the  course  will  graduate  in  four  years. 
A  pupil  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade  or  of  grade 
B  may  go  on  with  a  division  which  will  enable 
him  to  complete  the  course  in  five  years. 

All  promotions  both  from  the  grammar  to  the 
high  school  and  from  grade  to  grade  are  made 
by  the  class  teachers,  under  the  direction  of  the  made  by  class 
principal  and  superintendent.  No  pre-announced  teachers  baso»i 
examinations  are  given,  but  there  are  frequent  "^''^  ^''^'"'^  "^ 
written  reviews  given  by  the  teacher,  the  results 
of  which  help  to  determine  the  fitness  of  pupils 
to  go  forward.  One  feature  of  the  plan  which 
has  helped  it  to  succeed  is  that  of  the  employ- 
ment of  a  special  teacher  in  each  building,  whose 
business  it  is  to  assist  pupils  who  are  behind  in 
their  classes  in  any  studies,  or  who  are  trying  to 
get  into  an  advanced  class.  This  assistance,  how- 
ever, is  no  essential  part  of  the  plan.  It  may 
properly  be  used  with  advantage  in  carrying  out 
any  plan. 

By  this  plan  it  will  be  seen  that  the  entire 
grammar  school  course  may  be' finished  in  four, 
five  or  six  years,  depending  upon  the  stiength 
or  ability  of  the  pupils,  and  all  without  the  omis- 
sion or  repetition  of  any  part  of  the  course. 
The  plan  can  best  be  carried  out  in  large  schools ; 
but  the  essential  features  of  it  may  be  adopted  in 
a  school  of  two  or  three  hundred  pupils  of  the 
grammar  grade. 

Plan  E. — Each  class  or  grade  of  pupils  is  di- 
vided into  three  or  four  sections  in  the  jnost  iin- 


132         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Class  divided 
into  tliree  or 
four  sections. 


Grading  and 
thoroughness 
applied  to  but 
few  subjects. 


The  needs  of 
individual 
pupils  met. 


portant  subjects  only.  In  all  other  subjects  the 
sections  of  a  room  are  heard  together  in  recita- 
tion. The  sections  go  forward  as  rapidly  as  they 
are  able  to  go  independent  of  grade  require- 
ments. Indiv^idual  pupils  are  placed  at  any  time 
in  such  sections  as  will  enable  them  to  work  to 
the  best  advantage  to  themselves,  especially  in 
such  sequential  subjects  as  reading  and  arithme- 
tic in  the  lower  grades  and  grammar  and  arith- 
metic in  the  upper,  grades. 

By  this  plan  grading  and  thoroughness  are 
made  features  of  a  few  subjects  only,  all  other 
subjects  being  taught  quite  independent  of  grad- 
ing or  of  amounts  required.  This  plan  affords 
great  opportunity  for  individual  promotions. 

Plan  F. — Promotions  in  the  primary  school 
are  made  without  regard  to  fixed  dates.  The 
half  yearly  interval  between  classes  exists  after 
the  fourth  year,  two  classes  being  admitted  into 
the  high  school  each  year.  Much  dependence  is 
placed  upon  class  management  to  meet  the  needs 
of  individual  pupils.  Minimum  requirements 
are  made  for  each  class  in  every  subject.  When 
these  requirements  are  met  by  a  pupil  in  any 
subject,  he  is  excused  from  recitation  in  that 
subject  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  with  the  un- 
derstanding that  he  will  spend  the  time  thus 
gained  in  meeting  the  requirements  of  other 
subjects  in  which  he  is  interested. 

In  many  cases  the  responsibility  of  deciding 
how  the  extra  time  shall  be  spent  rests  upon  the 
pupils,  their  needs  as  well  as  their  interest  being 
considered.     The  amount  of  time  taken  from  a 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  133 

given  subject  varies  from  a  part  of  a  recitation 
to  a  dozen  or  more  recitations.     In  some  cases,  '^™^  t^^^° 
notably  when  a  pupil  enters  from  another  school    '.c^amr  ^iv 
in  which  he  has  covered  a  part  of  the  required  to  another. 
work,  he  may  be  excused  from  an  entire  term's 
recitation  in  a   given   subject,    the  extra  time 
being  given  to  working  up  some  subject  in  which 
he  is  behind  the  class. 

Besides  offering   a  good   opportunity  for  fre-  prequeut 
quent  special  promotions  the  plan  gives  addi-  special  promo- 
tional study  time  in  school  to  some  pupils,  allows  ^'""^• 
time  for  the  teacher  to  give  special  attention  to 
pupils  who  most  need  attention,  affords  oppor- 
tunity for  pupils  to  develop  their  latent  powers, 
and  helps  to  encourage  independence  and  a  feel- 
ing of  responsibility  in  pupils. 

Depjirtment.ll  instruction. — By  departmental 
instruction  is  meant  the  instruction  by  one  teach- 
er of  the  pupils  of  two  or  more  grades  or  schools 
in  one  subject  of  study  or  in  one  group  of  sub- 
jects. This  plan,  which  is  quite  extensively  fol- 
lowed in  high  ischools,  has  been  tried  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  elementary  schools,  with  varying 
degrees  of  success. 

-  Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  it  by  those 
who  have  tried  it  are  (I)  better  adaptation   of  Advanuvgesof 
work  to  the  tastes  and  abilities  of  teachers,  (2)  '^'^^.''J^'"'"^''* 
a  better  preparation  for  and  greater  intelligence 
in  the  work  on  the  part  of  teachers,  (3)  increased 
interest  in  the  studies  on  the  part  of  pupils. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  plan  as  viewed  by 
some  observers  are  (1)  a  tendency  to  narrowness 
and  irresponsibility  on  the   part  of  teachers,  (2) 


134         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Disadvan 
ta":es. 


Departmental 
instruction  in 
special  liranch- 
es. 


Grammar 
soliools  and 
high  schools 
compared. 


laxity  of  discipline,  (3)  a  decreased  opportunity 
and  inclination  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  cor- 
relate the  studies,  (4)  lessened  opportunity  for 
teachers  to  become  acquainted  with  individual 
pupils  and  to  meet  their  needs. 

Present  experience  seems  to  indicate  that  de- 
partmental instruction  is  more  generally  ap- 
proved in  such  subjects  as  drawing,  singing,  and 
physical  culture  than  in  the  so-called  regular 
studies.  But  as  this  preference  is  due  largely 
to  the  fact  that  regular  teachers  are  not  as  a 
rule  well  qualified  to  teach  the  subjects  named, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  all  subjects  of  the 
curriculum  will  be  treated  in  the  same  way 
when  teachers  become  thoroughly  prepared  for 
their  work. 

From  a  theoretical  standpoint,  it  would  seem 
that  some  of  the  advantages  of  departmental 
teaching  which  are  (jfuite  generally  admitted  to 
exist  in  high  schools  must  be  gained  by  such 
teaching  in  the  grammar  schools.  It  is  claimed 
by  some  that  the  difference  of  conditions  in  the 
two  kinds  of  schools  ought  not  to  be  so  great  as 
to  warrant  a  v>  holly  different  plan  of  classifica- 
tion and  teaching.  It  is  true  that  the  treatment 
of  subjects  should  be  very  broad  in  the  lower 
grades  and  that  increased  specialization  is  de- 
manded in  the  higher  grades.  From  this  it  might 
be  argued  that  it  would  be  better  for  one  teacher 
to  give  instruction  in  several  branches  to  pupils 
of  the  lower  grades  than  for  the  subjects  to  be 
apportioned  among  several  teachers.  But  this 
argument  would  not  prove  that  there  can  be  no 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  135 

profitable  specialization  in  the  elementary  schools. 
Certainly  it  cannot  justify  a  sudden  and  radical 
change  of  plan  in  the  beginning  of  the  high 
school  course. 

There  is  little  doubt  of  the  desirability  of  hav- 
ing  one   teacher   for   all   subjects  in  the  lower  one  teacher 
grades  of  the  elementary  schools.     By  continued  for  ail  sub- 
contact  only  can  the  teacher  become  thoroughly  i^^*^  ^"  ^''^®*' 

"-rades 

acquainted  with  the  children  and  their  needs.  '^ 
On  this  account  the  teacher  should  be  with  the 
same  class  of  pupils  if  possible  a  longer  time 
than  one  year,  a  plan  quite  as  useful  for  the 
regular  teacher  as  for  the  departmental  teacher. 
As  the  pupils  advance  they  might  gradually 
come  under  departmental  instruction.  For  ex-  ^^  limited 
ample   in   the   fifth    or   sixth   year  one  subject  ''^'"^""  ^ 

^  ^  J  partracutal 

might  be  taught  by  a   teacher  other  than  the  u-aching  in 
regular  teacher,  and  in  the  following  year  one  or  "ppei"  grades 
two  more  subjects  might  be  treated  in  the  same  "  s'^^™**'' 

''  °  schools. 

way.  By  such  a  course  the  regular  teacher 
would  have  a  gradually  lessened  charge  of  his 
pupils,  until  in  the  highest  grade  a  minimum  of 
seventy  or  seventy- five  percentum  of  time  is 
reached  in  which  he  is  in  his  own  room. 

It  would  seem  that  a  proper  adjustment  of 
work  would  warrant  a  teacher's  having  only  one 
subject   or    two    closely  correlated   subjects   to  I'ossiiJ'i- 

.  ,  ,     ■  T  n    ^    ■  rni  i.  IlH-thods  of 

teach   outside   of  his   room.     The   one   or   two  ,i,,pnrt,ucnt«i 
special  subjects  might  very  properly  be  given  in  instruction. 
grades  quite  near  to  the  grade  of  pupils  over 
whom  the  teacher  has  regular  charge.     For  ex- 
ample the  teacher  of  a  seventh  grade  might  have 
charge  of  the  geography  in  the  sixth,  seventh  and 


13(5         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

eighth  grades;  or  the  teacher  of  an  eighth  grade 
might  have  charge  of  the  drawing  in  the  three 
highest  grades. 

As  to  a  choice  of  subjects  for  speciahzation 
e  , .    ...         several  circumstances  should  be  considered,  the 

bub]ecls  tor 

specialization,  fii'st  being  the  Special  choice  and  ability  of  the 
teachers.  In  a  large  building  or  in  a  gi'oup  of 
schools,  the  teachers  are  likely  to  differ  greatly 
in  natural  and  acquired  ability,  and  therefore 
each  teacher  should  be  given  as  far  as  possible 
that  subject  to  teach  in  two  or  more  grades 
which  he  can  teach  best. 

Again  those  subjects  should  be  selected  for  de- 
partmental instruction  which  are  the  most  tech- 
nical, especially  if  there  are  no  special  super- 
visors for  those  subjects.  Such  subjects  as  mu- 
sic, drawing,  penmanship,  nature  study,  and 
physical  training  involve  points  of  difficulty 
which  can  be  worked  out  to  best  advantage  by 
one  who  gives  special  attention  to  them. 

Again  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  select  those 
subjects  for  departmental  instruction  w  hich  are 
not  closely  graded  and  which  may  be  taught 
to  two  or  three  grades  of  pupils  at  once.  The 
subjects  above  named  are,  on  this  account,  to 
be  preferred  for  special  teaching  to  those  subjects 
which  may  have  to  be  taught  by  grades  or  sec- 
tions. Moreover  if  the  special  teacher  takes  an 
entire  school  or  room  of  pupils  to  teach,  there 
is  less  likely  to  be  laxity  of  discipline  than  when 
the  same  class  of  pupils  have  to  be  taught  in 
sections. 

To  prevent  a  too  great  specialization  of  teach- 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  137 

ing  and  to  facilitate   the  needed  correlation  of 

studies,  there  should  be  frequent  consultations  of  ^^*^^^f^  ^^®" 

guards. 

teachers  for  the  purpose  of  laying  out  the  cor- 
related subjects  and  of  apportioning  the  time  and 
work  so  that  each  subject  shall  have  its  proper 
share  of  attention. 

Child  study. — Every  superintendent  and  school 
board  feels  obliged  sooner  or  later  to  consider 
how  far  the  pupils  of  the  schools  are  to  become 
subjects  of  inquiry  respecting  their  condition  of  Theueedof 
body  and  mind  and  the  circumstances  under  ciiiid  study. 
which  they  are  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 
schools.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  de- 
sirability of  making  such  inquiry  on  the  part  of 
teachers  as  will  enable  them  to  reach  most  effi- 
ciently the  needs  of  each  pupil.  It  may  be  said 
that  this  is  already  done  by  good  teachers,  but 
even  good  teachers  need  the  direct  assistance  and 
cooperation  of  the  supervising  authorities  fully 
to  accomphsh  the  ends  most  desired. 

The  most  obvious  need  of  individual  inquiry 
is  in  respect  to  the  physical  condition  of  the  pu-    "^j^^  respect- 
pils.     Extended  investigations  have  revealed  the  ing  the  physi- 
most  alarming  physical  defects  in  the  pupils  of  ^^i'  condition 
all  grades  of  schools,  especially  defects  of  sight  *'   '*"^''  *^' 
and  hearing.  *     Without  a  knowledge  of  hygienic 
conditions  and  physical  defects,  teachers-cannot 
properly  meet  the  needs  of  their  pupils  either  of 
body  or  of  mind.     To  such  ignorance  mon*  per- 
haps than  to  any  other  cause  may  be  attributed 
the  continuance  and  too  frequently  the  increase 

*For  reports  of  investigations  respecting  the 
sight  and  hearing  of  pupils  see  Appendix  F. 


138         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


A  record  of 
pupils'  inter- 
ests and  char- 
acteristics. 


Separation  of 
all  abnormally 
defective  chil- 
dren. 


of  physical  ills,  while  on  account  of  it  some  of 
the  modern  mistakes  of  both  over  and  under 
pressure  may  be  due.  It  becomes  advisable 
therefore  for  provision  to  be  made  whereby 
all  the  essential  facts  shall  be  ascertained  re- 
specting the  sight,  hearing,  and  general  health 
of  all  the  pupils.  This  should  be  done  by  the 
teachers  under  expert  direction  and  the  facts 
should  be  carefully  noted  and  preserved.* 

While  the  physical  condition  of  the  pupils 
should  be  definitely  noted,  a  knowledge  of  their 
mental  characteristics  is  scarcely  less  important. 
Such  facts  as  each  pupil's  deepest  interest  and 
chief  characteristic  and  the  extent  of  his  mental 
power  in  various  directions  occasionally  recorded 
by  the  teacher  will  be  a  valuable  aid  not  only  to 
the  teachers  making  the  observations  but  also  to 
the  subsequent  teachers.  The  Life  Book  made 
in  the  schools  of  France  and  the  record  of  cer- 
tain facts  pertaining  to  each  pupil  which  is  kept 
in  some  of  the  schools  of  this  country  indicate 
a  kind  of  child  study  which  may  well  challenge 
the  attention  of  progressive  teachers. f 

Special  schools  and  classes. — Schools  for  defec- 
tives.— It  ought  to  be  assumed  that  no  child 
shall  be  allowed  to  attend  the  regular  public 
school  whose  presence  in  the  school  has  a  deter- 
rent or  demoralizing  effect  upon  the  other  pu- 

*  Notes  respecting  school  hygiene,  the  meth- 
ods and  means  of  ascertaining  the  physical  con- 
dition of  pupils  are  given  in  Appendix  F. 

t  Some  of  the  records  used  for  these  observa- 
tions are  given  in  Chapters  IX  and  XII. 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  139 

pils.  For  the  sake  of  all  concerned,  abnormally 
defective  children,  such  as  the  blind,  deaf-mute, 
and  feeble-minded,  should  be  educated  in  special 
schools  supported  either  by  the  state  or  by  the 
municipality  in  which  such  children  live. 

For  blind  and  deaf  children  and  for  the  milder 
cases  of  feeble-minded  children,  special  local  Special  local 
schools  may  be  established  in  places  where  the  schools. 
number  of  such  children  warrant  it,  the  chil- 
dren living  at  home.  Attendance  upon  these 
institutions  should  be  obligatory  on  the  part  of 
all  defectives  not  otherwise  provided  for.  The 
home  school  for  defectives  should  be  so  organized 
that  no  teacher  will  have  more  than  twelve  or 
fifteen  pupils  to  care  for  at  any  time,  a  large 
part  of  the  work  being  with  individual  children. 
A  fuller  treatment  of  this  subject  will  be  found 
in  chapter  XI. 

Provision   for    individual    instruction. — For 
simply  backward  pupils  or  for  those  who  need  ex-  \'^'^"'^  *^^  ""'5 

^  "^  ^    ^  tlie  needs  of 

tra  mdividual  assistance  to  enable  them  to  work  backward chii- 
profitably  with  a  given  class,  special  schools  or  dien  and  to 
classes  may  be  formed.     In  a  school  building  or  g'^emoreat- 

T        .  1       T  M     ii  tention  to  indi- 

district  consistmg  of  three  hundred  pupils  there  viduai  pupils, 
are  likely  to  be  fifteen  or  twenty  of  such  pupils  as 
need  the  special  attention  of  a  superior  teacher. 
No  attempt  at  grading  these  pupils  should  be 
made  unless  there  are  enough  for  two  or  more 
schools  in  a  building  or  neighborhood,  in  which 
case  the  division  might  be  made  on  lines  of  pro- 
ficiency in  reading  and  arithmetic  or  in  reading 
and  writing. 

One  means  of  giving  special  assistance  to  in- 


140         School   Organization  and  Supervision 

dividual  pupils  is  the  employment  of  an  extra 
teacher  who  hears  no  recitations  but  passes  from 
seat  to  seat  to  give  pupils  such  assistance  as 
they  need.* 

Vacation  schools. — The  demoralizing  influence 
of  idleness  or  want  of  regular  occupation  is  no 
where  more  apparent  than  among  children  in 
cities  and  villages  during  the  long  summer  vaca- 
tion, and  the  demoralization  is  scarcely  less  ap- 
parent in  some  of  the  seaside  and  mountain  re- 
sorts. To  remedy  the  harm  in  some  degree,  a 
few  cities  and  large  towns  have  maintained 
vacation  schools  with  most  excellent  results. 
The  programme  of  these  schools  is  usually 
The  pro-  quite  different  from  that  of  the  ordinary  school, 

gramme  o  va-  ][3gJQg  gjyen  largely  to  nature  study,  reading, 
industrial  exercises  of  various  kinds,  and  physi- 
cal exercises,  including  interesting  plays  and 
games.  It  is  also  found  useful  in  some  vacation 
schools  to  offer  opportunity  for  a  limited  amount 
of  study  in  some  such  sequential  branches  as 
reading,  arithmetic,  and  grammar,  by  means  of 
'which  pupils  may  work  into  a  higher  grade  in 
the  fall  term  of  school.  These  schools  may  also 
afford  opportunity  for  good  field  work  in  geogra- 
phy as  well  as  in  geology  and  botany. 

So  popular  have  summer  schools  become  that 
it  has  been  found  difficult  in  some  places  to  meet 
the  demand  for  them.  The  hope  is  that  they 
will  become  universal,  and  be  as  vital  a  part  of 

*  This  is  known  as  the  Batavia  plan,  having 
been  introduced  in  the  schools  of  Batavia,  N.  Y., 
by  Superintendent  John  Kennedy. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizei^  141 

the  public  school  system  as  the  more  strenuous 
sessions  of  other  portions  of  the  year. 

It  is   a  fair  question  whether  these   schools 
should  not  be  placed  upon  the  same   basis  of 
compulsory   attendance   as    other   schools.     No  Attendance 
doubt   the  promise  of  such  work  as  the  above  "^'''"  '"'"T'" 

^  session  might 

programmes  offer  will  be  sufficient  inducement  be  compulsory 
for  a  large  majority  of  the  children  to  attend 
school  during  several  weeks  of  the  summer. 
For  the  protection  of  the  community  and  of  a 
few  idle  and  disorderly  children,  the  summer 
session  of  the  schools  might  very  properly  be  re- 
garded as  a  part  of  the  compulsory  school  year, 
but  in  this  case  the  school  officials  should  be 
given  full  authority  to  excuse  from  attendance 
at  the  summer  session  all  children  who  are  pro- 
vided with  regular  employement,  or  who  are 
looked  after  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  care  by 
parents  or  guardians. 

Evening  schools.  —  The  notable  response  of 
the  people  in  some  of  the  large  cities  of  the 
country  to  the  proffered  evening  use  of  school 
buildings  for  educational  purposes  suggests  the 
advisability  of  a  universal  adoption  of  the  plan. 
In  New  York  and  Boston  thousands  of  persons 
l)eyond  school  age  during  certain  seasons  throng 
nightly  the  school-rooms  for  the  purpose  of 
receiving  instruction  in  various  lines  of  study 
and  practice.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  response  would  be  less  marked  in  many 
smaller  places  if  the  same  or  similar  advantages 
were  offered. 

There  is  probably  no  other  outlay  from  which 


142         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Outlay  for 
evening 
schools  justi- 
liable. 


Evening 
schools  for 
ordinary' 
branches. 


Evening 
drawing 
schools. 


Evening  high 
schools. 


there  are  so  many  immediate  and  direct  results 
as  that  which  is  made  for  well  administered 
evening  schools.  Of  course  the  money  for  their 
maintenance  must  not  be  diverted  from  revenues 
needed  for  the  support  of  the  ordinary  day 
schools.  The  relative  cost  of  the  evening  in- 
struction in  many  subjects  may  be  made  consid- 
erably less  per  pupil  than  that  of  the  day  schools, 
while  some  of  the  expense  for  evening  instruc- 
tion may  very  properly  be  borne  by  those  who 
receive  its  benefits. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  evening  schools  to 
which  attention  may  be  given. 

(1)  evening  schools  for  instruction  in  the  ordi- 
nary branches  to  persons  beyond  the  school  age. 
These  schools  have  been  in  existence  for  a 
long  time  in  many  of  the  larger  places,  and  have 
been  found  very  useful  when  properly  conducted. 
Much  of  the  work  done  in  these  schools  is  neces- 
sarily individual,  although  in  large  cities  a  classi- 
fication somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  day 
schools  may  be  made. 

(2)  evening  schools  for  instruction  in  drawing. 
These  schools  are  best  patronized  in  manufactur- 
ing places  by  apprentices  and  artisans  who  need 
assistance  in  direct  connection  with  their  work 

(3)  evening  high  schools.  These  are  estab- 
lished only  in  large  cities  where  there  are  many 
graduates  of  the  grammar  schools  who  have  not 
found  it  possible  to  continue  their  studies  in  the 
day  high  school.  There  are  also  others  not 
graduates  of  the  grammar  school  who  can  profit 
by  the  instruction  in  high  school  subjects. 


The   Superintendent  as   Organizer  143 

(4)  eveDing  industrial  schools  in  which  various 
kinds   of  industries   are   taught.     It  is  to  these  Educational 
schools  that  the  term  "  educational  centre  "  has  ^^'^*^^^- 
been  applied  and  in  which  the  unusual  interest 
above  alluded  to  has  been  manifested.* 

The  qnalific<atioii  and  appointment  of  teachers. — 
There  is  little  need  of  urging  the  desirability  of 
securing  for  the  schools  teachers  of  the  highest 
possible  qualifications.  Every  one  is  ready  to 
assent  to  Emerson's  oft  quoted  estimate  of  the 
importance  of  the  teacher  as  compared  with 
other  conditions  of  education;  but  not  all  are 
agreed  as  to  what  requirements  for  teachers 
should  be  actually  made.  Few  of  our  American 
states  are  yet  ready  to  adopt  the  standards  set 
by  the  requirements  of  Germany  and  France 
while  there  doubtless  are  many  people  who  fail 
to  see  that  such  requirements  are  either  neces- 
sary or  advisable. 

All  are  agreed  in  theory  at  least  that  the  first    ^       ,  ^^^^^^-^ 
and   necessary  qualifications  for  a  teacher  is  a  character 
good  moral   character,  coupled   with   a  refined  essential. 
and  cultivated  personality. 

All  too  would  insist  upon  a  fair  degree  of 
scholarship  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  teacher's 
equipment.  In  actual  practice  however,  as  shown  Seiioiarsiiip 
by  examination  requirements,  there  are  varied 
notions  as  to  the  extent  of  knowledge  needed 
for  a  teacher,  from  the  idea  that  a  teacher  needs 
to  know  only  what  he  expects  to  teach  to  the 
idea  that  he  should  have  a  thorough  knowledge 

*Some  account  of  the  work  carried  on  in  edu- 
cational centres  is  given  in  Appendix  E. 


144         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

of  subjects  far  in  advance  of  the  immediate  needs 
of  his  pupils.  Well  estabhshed  systems  of  edu- 
cation abroad  demand  the  last  named  standard 
of  acquirements  for  the  teachers,  and  the  trend 
of  sentiment  and  practice  in  America  is  in  this 
direction. 

The  acquiring  of  knowledge  presupposes  a 
knowing  mind,  and  the  power  of  imparting 
Professional  knowledge  is  enhanced  by  a  knowledge  of  how 
^ '^r^k"!!^^  it  is  best  acquired.  The  teacher  therefore  must 
add  to  his  knowledge  of  subjects  a  knowledge 
of  mind  and  its  processes.  This  knowledge  of 
psychology  to  be  effective  must  be  not  merely 
general  and  theoretical;  it  must  be  particular 
and  practical,  a  kind  of  knowledge  which  will 
furnish  a  basis  for  a  good  philosophy  of  method 
which  all  teachers  should  possess. 

Whether  we  agree  with  the  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Fifteen,  which  assumes  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  education  "  are  rational  inferences  from 
psychological  laws  ",*  or  with  Professor  James 
in  the  thought  that  it  is  not  possible  for  definite 
programmes  and  methods  of  instruction  to  be 
deduced  from  psychology, f  few  will  now  deny 
that  the  teacher  will  be  a  better  teacher  for 
^^hoio  knowing    something    of    the    "science   of   the 

mind's  laws  ".  Even  Professor  James  admits 
this  when  he  says  that  although  the  methods  of 
teaching  are  not  derived  from  psychology  they 

*Report  of  fhe  Committee  of  Ffteen,  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Book  Company,  1885, 
p.  25. 

fTalks  on  Psychology  and  Life's  Ideals,  p.  7. 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  145 

must  agree  with  it,  and  that  "  psychology  ought 
certainly  to  give  the  teacher  radical  helps."* 

In  recognizing  the  worth  to  a  teacher  of  a 
knowledge  of  psychology,  we  need  not  in  any 
way  disparage  that  individual  "  inventiveness 
and  sympathetic  concrete  observation  "  which 
Professor  James  makes  so  much  of.  Add  to  this 
equipment  of  a  teacher  those  other  features  of 
professional  training  mentioned  in  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  and  we  have  a  stan- 
dard of  quahfications  which  is  everywhere  rec- 
ognized as  complete. 

Recognizing  this  threefold  standard  of  quali- 
fications for  teachers,  viz. :  a  high  personality, 
good  scholarship,  and  efficient  professional  abili- 
ty, the  superintendent  asks  with  much  concern 
how  persons  possessing  such  quahfications  may 
be  secured.  Upon  the  assumption  that  the  peo- 
ple are  interested  in  the  schools  to  the  extent  of  ^i^^^^^^^  ^f 
giving  freely  to  their  support  and  of  electing  securing  good 
only  able  and  disinterested  persons  on  the  school  teachers, 
board,  the  problem  ought  not  to  be  a  difficult  one 
to  solve.  The  minimum  qualifications  of  teach- 
ers needed  should  be  clearly  set  forth,  and  the 
superintendent  by  personal  examination  or  by 
inspection  of  their  work  should  make  his  nomi- 
nations, froin  which  alone  teachers  sliould  be 
selected  by  the  board.  Sometimes  a  sin-^le  nom- 
ination may  be  made  for  a  given  vacancy,  the 
board  either  confirming  or  rejecting  the  nom- 
ination. 

The  least  which  should  be  demanded  of  candi- 

*Ibid,  p.  9. 


146         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Minimum 
qualifications 
of  teachers 
defined. 


The  most 
diflicult  prob- 
lem in  country 
districts. 


Examinations. 


dates  for  positions  in  primary  and  grammar 
schools  is  the  equivalent  of  a  two  years'  normal 
school  training,  and  for  positions  in  high  schools 
the  equivalent  of  a  four  years'  course  in  college 
or  normal  school.  At  present  the  standard  of 
qualifications  for  teachers  here  mentioned  is  fully 
met  in  many  cities  and  large  towns,  and  the  re- 
sults fully  justify  the  extraordinary  efforts  that 
have  been  made  by  the  people  and  school  officials 
of  these  places. 

The  most  difficult  problem  is  to  be  met  in 
country  districts,  where  the  means  of  carrying 
on  the  schools  is  generally  quite  limited  and 
where  the  expectations  and  demands  are  fre- 
quently of  a  low  order.  Mention  has  been  made 
of  the  duty  of  the  state  to  provide  liberally  for 
the  support  of  schools  and  to  encourage  a  liberal 
policy  of  local  taxation.*  Mention  also  has 
been  made  of  the  necessity  of  designating  in 
some  way  a  minimum  of  qualifications  for  all 
the  teachers  of  a  state. f  If  all  this  is  done  and 
if  the  system  of  supervision  is  at  all  adequate,  it 
ought  not  to  be  a  difficult  matter  to  bring  the 
schools  of  country  districts  up  to  the  standard  of 
the  schools  now  maintained  in  the  larger  towns. 

The  state  may  materially  assist  the  authorities 
of  both  larger  and  smaller  municipalities  by  in- 
augurating a  system  of  examinations  such  as  is 
maintained  in  Germany  and  in  one  or  two  of 
our  American  states ;  and  by  requiring  that  this 
standard  of  qualifications  shall  be  maintained  by 
all  the  cities  and  towns. 

*Pp.  17-20.     -fP.  15. 


The  Superintendent  as  Orgayiizer  147 

Of  course  the  best  test  of  a  teacher's  abihty 
is  actual  work  in  the  schoolroom.     Instead  of  a   , 
formal  examination  upon  the  professional  side,  the  schoolroom 
whenever  it   is  convenient  candidates  for  posi-  the  best  test. 
tions  may  be  asked  to  take  a  class  or  school  for 
half  a  day  or  to  serve  as  substitutes  for  a  time. 
Superintendents  also  will  find  it  helpful  to  visit 
the  schools  in  which  candidates  are  teaching  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their  ability  as  teach- 
ers.    There  are  few  duties  of  the  superintendent 
more  important  than   that  of   making  a   wise 
selection  of  teachers,  and  he  can  well  afford  to 
go  long  distances  to  be  sure  that  no   errors  of 
judgment  are  made. 

As  a  practical  measure  of  precaution  it  is  well 
in  the  selection  of  teachers,  especially  in  the  case 
of  untried  teachers,  to  place  them  on  probation  'I'e'npoiary 
for  a  limited  time,  and  when  they  have  proved  '*'^^^'^'"  ™^°  ^- 
their  competence  to  elect  them  for  an  unlimited 
time  subject  to  removal  only  for  cause. 

Text-books  and  supplies. — If  the  rule  is  followed 
as  suggested  (see  page  43)  that  "  no  books  shall 
be  selected  by  the  board  in  opposition  to  his  [the 
superintendent's]  recommendation"  the  respons- 
ibility of  having  good  text-books  in  the  schools 
rests  upon  the  superintendent. 

While  a  superintendent  may  be  able  by  a 
careful  inspection  to  see  the  good  features  of  a  '^Q\Qf,^\^„  ^yxt- 
text-book,  he  will  always  welcome  the  advice  of  hooks. 
his  best  teachers.  If  therefore  a  change  in  text- 
books seems  desirable  it  will  be  found  helpful  to 
give  to  one  and  another  a  text-book  under  con- 
templation and  to  ask  their  opinion  of  its  merits. 


148 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Few  changes 
of  text-"books 
should  be 
made. 


Objections  to 
free  text-book 
system. 


There  need  be  no  haste  in  making  the  decision, 
and  plenty  of  time  should  be  given  for  a  com- 
parison of  views.  It  may  even  be  well  to  put  a 
set  of  books  into  the  hands  of  a  class  of  pupils 
for  trial  under  one  of  the  teachers,  and  watch 
the  result.  It  may  be  found  that  a  text- book 
whose  selection  and  arrangement  of  topics  are 
to  all  appearance  good  is  not  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions found  satisfactory  in  actual  practice. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  school  boards 
and  superintendents  that  frequent  changes  of 
text-books  are  to  be  avoided.  The  teachers 
should  be  made  to  realize  that  the  value  of  their 
work  depends  more  upon  them  than  upon  the 
text- book.  This  precaution  is  especially  needed 
in  places  where  the  parents  have  to  purchase  the 
books.  The  expense  of  text- books  in  a  large 
family  is  sufficiently  burdensome  when  there  are 
no  changes  of  books,  and  when  they  may  be 
passed  on  from  the  older  to  the  younger  children. 
If  changes  must  be  made  it  seems  but  right  that 
some  method  of  exchange  be  resorted  to,  and  that 
the  extra  expense  if  any  be  borne  by  the  city  or 
town. 

As  to  the  question  of  free  text-books  some- 
thing may  be  said  upon  both  sides.  The  objec- 
tions most  commonly  heard  are : 

(L)  the  books  are  likely  to  be  used  too  long 

(2)  the  books  are  carriers  of  disease 

(3)  the  plan  of  free  text-books  prevents  the 
gathering  of  educative  books  in  the  home. 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  plan 
are  the  following : 


The   Superintendent  as  Organizer  149 

(1)  a  necessary  condition  of  a  free  and  compul- 
sory system  of   schools  Advantages  of 

(2)  an  increase  of  attendance  upon  the  schools  hook^^* 

(3)  economy  of  time  and  money 

(4)  training  of  the  children  in  the  exercise  of 
care  of  things  not  their  own 

(5)  the  removal  of  a  serious  burden  of  ex- 
pense from  parents 

(6)  convenience  in  having  books  on  hand  when 
needed. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  arguments  in 
favor  of  the  free  text-book  system  are  more 
weighty  than  those  upon  the  other  side.  Some 
of  the  objections  raised  may  be  met  by  letting 
the  pupils  as  far  as  possible  have  the  same  books  AVaysofavoid- 
from  term  to  term  and  even  from  year  to  year,  "'g  objections, 
by  frequently  disinfecting  the  books,  by  letting 
the  pupils  have  full  possession  of  the  books  after 
using  them  for  a  certain  time,  and  by  ])ermitting 
parents  to  buy  individual  text-books  for  their 
children  when  they  desire  to  do  so. 

Some  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  fur- 
nishing of  free  text-books  may  also  l)e  claimed  Free  supiiiics. 
for  free  supplies,  such  as  paper,  pens,  pencils,  etc. 

The  cost  of  supplying  text-books  and  supplies 
to  all  the  pupils  will  of  course  be  greater  during 
the  first  year  than  it  will  be  afterwards.     It  will  Piobahio  cost 
vary  in  the  different  grades;  the  average  annual  <>f  fiw  text 
expense  for  all  the  schools,  high  schools  as  well  ''o"?^"  '""• 
as  elementary  ought  not  to  be  less  than  !?  1.2 5  per  '■"''i"*^- 
pupil,  and  will  not  be  likely  to  be  more  than  *?  J  .75.* 

*The  average  annual  amount  paid  for  text- 
books and  supplies  in  Massachusetts  for  the  ten 
years  ending  1902  was  $1.()2  for  each  pupil. 


CHAPTER  VII 


Relative  im- 
portance of 
supervision. 


The  superin- 
tendent's 
duties  as 
inspector. 


THE   SUPERINTENDENT   AS   SUPERVISOR 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  double  duty 
of  a  superintendent  of  schools — that  of  organ- 
ization and  that  of  supervision.  Important  as 
the  duties  of  organization  may  be,  the  duties  of 
oversight  and  wise  direction  of  school  work  are 
far  more  so. 

That  these  more  important  duties  are  most 
frequently  neglected  is  a  matter  of  common  ob- 
servation. One  possible  reason  of  the  neglect  of 
this  part  of  the  superintendent's  duties  is  the  fact 
that  they  are  more  professional  in  character  than 
his  other  duties,  and  demand  a  greater  degree 
of  skill  in  their  successful  accomplishment.  It 
is  comparatively  easy  for  a  superintendent  to 
allow  his  time  to  be  wholly  absorbed  in  matters 
relating  to  the  course  of  studies,  attendance  of 
pupils,  classification,  and  the  like,  not  to  speak  of 
the  duty  of  attending  to  details  of  repairs,  sup- 
plies, and  business  accounts,  which  some  superin- 
tendents seem  wiUing  to  assume  and  which  some 
school  boards  are  only  too  willing  to  put  upon 
them. 

School  iiisppctiou. — The  duties  of  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools  as  supervisor  are  those  of  in- 
specting, examining,  advising,  and  directing. 
As  inspector,  the  superintendent  should  ascer- 
tain, through  observation  and  inquiry 

(150) 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  151 

(1)  the  condition  of  the  buildings  and  premises, 
and  the  character  of  the  ventilation,  heating, 
and  lighting  of  the  schoolrooms 

{•2)  the  attendance  of  pupils 

(3)  the  condition  of  the  school,  including  the 
teacher's  personahty  and  method  of  teaching, 
the  school  equipment,  and  the  work  done  by  the 
pupils. 

Enough  is  said  elsewhere  respecting  the  con- 
struction   and    care    of    school    buildings    and  inspectiouof 
grounds  *  to  show  the  part  which  the  superin-  school  build- 
tendent  mav  assume  in  the  inspection  of  what  *"=^  *°*^ 

icrounas. 

maybe  called  the  "externals"  of  the  schools. 
■"Without  permitting  this  part  of  his  duties  to 
absorb  much  of  his  time,  he  will  find  it  neces- 
sary to  have  enough  direct  knowledge  of  the 
condition  and  needs  of  the  buildings  and  their 
equipment  and  surroundings  to  co-operate  with 
all  concerned  in  the  securing  and  maintaining  of 
convenient  and  healthful  accommodations  for 
the  schools. 

In  matters  of  school  attendance  the  superin- 
tendent will  work  mainly  through  teachers  and  Cases  of  uon 
attendance  officers.     Needed  information  of  this  -^"^'"'lan*^^  "f 

pupils  to  be 

kind  will  be  gained  by  means  of  records  and  re-  „oteii. 
ports.     He  will  however  need  to  take  frequent 
note  of  cases  of  non-attendance  and  their  causes 
so  as  to  advise  intelligently  as  to  a  proper  course 
to  pursue,  both  in  general  and  in  particular  cases.f 

*  See  pp.  6 1-64 ;  also  Chapter  IX  and  Appen- 
dix F. 

+  For  the  duties  of  truant  officei-s  and  the  ti-eat- 
ment  of  truants  see  pp.  -iT-ii*  and  Appendix  E. 


152         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  the  element 
of  a  well-defined  purpose  is  as  important  in  the 
A  well  defined  inspection  of  schools  as  it  is  in  teaching.     The 
purpose  neces-  superintendent  who  in  his  visits  wanders  from 
^^^'  school  to  school  with  no  definite  purpose  really 

accomplishes  little.  He  may  by  chatting  pleas- 
antly with  the  teachers  and  pupils  have  a  happy 
time  and  perhaps  make  himself  a  welcome  vis- 
itor, but  these  ends  can  be  quite  as  well  attained 
in  a  wise  effort  to  make  the  work  of  the  school 
more  effective.  This  is  done  by  inquiry  and  ob- 
servation along  definite  lines,  with  such  sugges- 
tions, directions,  and  advice  as  will  lead  both 
teachers  and  pupils  to  work  together  with  a 
common  purpose. 

In  a  given  week  or  month  the  superintendent 
may  wish  to  give  special  attention  to  a  branch 
of  study  that  is  to  be  treated  at  the  monthly 
teachers'  meeting.  At  times  he  may  desire 
especially  to  follow  up  certain  suggestions  he  has 
made  either  to  the  teachers  together  or  to  a  few 
teachers  separately.  Again,  certain  points  of 
observation  of  use  to  the  school  board  at  its 
regular  meeting  may  claim  his  attention.  In 
all  his  visits  he  should  not  forget  that  the  con- 
ditions of  the  school  require  him  to  bring  to  it 
chTr'andhei)  ^Iways  a  spiHt  of  checr  and  inspiring  enthusi- 
fulness needed,  asm.  Whenever  he  find  himself  in  a  despond- 
ent state  of  mind  or  in  a  condition  of  physical 
discomfort,  or  in  any  way  unfitted  to  appreciate 
the  good  efforts  and  intentions  of  the  teachers, 
he  should,  if  he  works  at  all,  perform  other 
duties  than   those  of   inspection.     We    may  go 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  153 

still  further  and  say  that  if  the  superintendent's 
habitual  attitude  toward  this  part  of  his  work  is 
not  that  of  courage,  helpfulness,  and  unbounded 
sympathy,  he  would  better  turn  to  some  other 
field  of  labor. 

The  superintendent's  chief  duty  as  inspector 
will  be  of  course  in  relation  to  the  actual  work  Questions  to  be 
of  the  school.  The  following  questions  should  constantly 
find  frequent  and  definite  answers  in  his  mind  in  ^^^^^  ^'"^ 
respect  to  every  school  which  he  visits.  Are  the 
pupils  constantly  and  profitably  occupied  in  their 
study  or  ' '  busy  wort ' '  ?  Are  the  tasks  assigned 
such  as  keep  every  pupil  at  work  when  not  re- 
citing V  Is  the  teaching  such  as  to  lead  the  pu- 
pils to  acquire  clear  ideas  of  the  subject  or  topic 
presented  ?  Is  the  questioning  of  a  kind  to  lead 
the  pupils  to  think  for  themselves  and  to  express 
themselves  in  an  original  way  ?  Is  opportunity 
afforded  in  the  recitation  for  the  pupils  to  express 
fully  what  they  have  to  say  of  the  subject  in 
hand  ?  Is  self-reliance  encouraged  in  the  study 
as  well  as  in  the  recitation  of  pupils  ?  Is  the  writ- 
ten language  carefully  done,  and  is  it  such  as  to 
encourage  habits  of  clearness,  correctness,  force, 
and  originality  of  expression  ?  Are  habits  of 
self-control  being  formed  in  the  life  of  the 
school  from  motives  of  a  regard  for  the  rights 
and  feelings  of  others  ?  These  and  other  well- 
defined  questions  should  be  constantly  asked  and 
answered  by  the  superintendent  as  he  inspects 
the  work  of  the  schools. 

As  the  information  thus  gained  will  be  not  for 
his  own  benefit  alone,  but  for  the  use  of  the 


154 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


How  notes  of 
inspection 
should  be 
taken. 


A  'notebook  in 
the  teacher's 
desk. 


teachers  and  school  board,  it  may  be  necessary 
for  him  to  take  notes  of  what  he  sees.  Some 
objection  has  been  made  to  the  takmg  of  notes 
in  the  schooh'oom  by  the  superintendent.  It  is 
true  that  teachers  may  be  embarrassed  by  such 
note-taking  if  it  is  done  openly  and  frequently, 
and  if  they  do  not  understand  the  use  to  which 
the  notes  are  to  be  put.  If,  however,  the  notes 
are  taken  quietly  at  the  close  of  a  visit  or  dur- 
ing three  or  five  minutes  of  his  visit,  some  of 
the  objection  will  be  removed.  If  in  addition 
to  this  precaution  the  superintendent  makes  it 
known  that  the  notes  are  to  be  used  mainly  for 
the  teacher's  benefit,  either  directly  in  a  private 
conference  or  in  a  teachers'  meeting,  there  is 
likely  to  be  little  objection  to  the  practice  by  the 
teacher,  A  good  method  will  be  for  the  super- 
intendent at  first  carefully  to  observe  the  work 
of  the  school  without  taking  notes.  After  a 
time  he  may  go  to  the  teacher's  desk,  and,  after 
examining  the  register  of  attendance  and  the 
written  work  of  pupils,  write  in  his  notebook 
such  observations  as  he  wishes  to  preserve  for 
reference.  This  may  be  done  quietly,  and  with- 
out attracting  attention. 

Some  superintendents  find  it  useful  to  have  a 
notebook  in  a  given  place  at  the  teacher'.s  desk, 
and  to  make  such  notes  in  it  as  the  teacher  needs 
to  know,  such  as  his  opinion  of  the  good  and 
poor  points  of  a  given  recitation,  or  what  better 
method  of  teaching  or  examining  might  be  used. 
The  teacher  uses  the  same  book  for  any  questions 
or  remarks  she  may  wish  to  note.     It  can   be 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  155 

readily  seen  that  a  judicious  use  of  such  a  note- 
book may  be  of  great  value  to  both  teachers  and 
superintendents. 

A  word  of  warning  is  needed  for  some  super- 
intendents who  are  inclined  to  be  too  analytical 
in  their  inspection  of  the  personality  and  work 
of  teachers.     While  the  inquiry   should  be  upon  rpj^g  inquhy 
definite  lines,  it  need  not  necessarily  be  upon  not  to  be  too 
many  lines  or  upon  very  minute  ones.     If  the  "lii^te- 
results  of  an  over-refined  inquiry  become  known 
to  the  teacher  whose  work  is  inspected,  there  is 
likely  to  result  a  sensitiveness  and  attention  to 
particulars  which  will  seriously  interfere   with 
her  work. 

Two  outlines  issued  by  reputable  superintend- 
ents will  illustrate  the  possible  dangers  of  this 
kind  of  inquiry.  The  first  outline  is  an  "  un- 
classified Isit  of  one  hundred  suggestive  questions 
for  self -examining  teachers  ".  Some  of  the 
questions  are  undoubtedly  good  ones,  and  may  Examples  of  a 
at  one  time  or  another  be  asked  by  conscientious   ^^,^  ^^^ 

•^  analysis. 

teachers;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  so  many  as  one 
hundred  or  even  ten  questions,  however  good 
they  may  be,  should  be  put  before  teachers  for 
constant  reference.  Teachers  above  all  persons 
need  to  be  as  free  as  possible  from  the  mechan- 
ism of  their  work,  and  much  introspection  is  of 
doubtful  value. 

The  other  outline  referred  to  is  for  the  guid- 
ance of  superintendents,  and  consists  of  one 
hundred  and  seventy  questions  to  be  answered 
by  them  in  their  inspection  of  the  work  of  teach- 
ers.    Here  again  there  is  danger  of  over-analysis 


156         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Danger  of 
over-estimat- 
ing unimpor- 
tant features. 


Three  parties 
concerned  in 
the  superin- 
tendent's in- 
spection. 


in  estimating  the  worth  of  a  teacher.  Some  of 
the  questions  must  necessarily  be  trivial  and 
comparatively  unimportant,  and  some  of  them, 
it  must  be  granted,  are  too  severe  a  test  even  for 
the  best  teachers.  The  standard  of  qualifica- 
tions for  teachers  should  be  high  but  it  should 
stop  far  short  of  perfection. 

In  rating  the  work  of  teachers  there  is  danger 
of  over-estimating  those  features  which  are  not 
satisfactory  or  of  making  comparatively  unim- 
portant features  overshadow  the  important  ones. 
If  for  example  the  sole  test  of  a  teacher's  worth 
is  his  manner  in  the  class  or  the  order  he  secures 
in  his  school,  unmindful  of  the  way  it  is  secured, 
an  injustice  is  likely  to  be  done  to  that  teacher; 
or  if  he  is  judged  only  by  the  intellectual  attain- 
ments of  his  pupils  or  by  their  attainments  in 
only  one  or  two  directions  the  same  error  may 
be  made. 

The  effectiveness  of  the  superintendent's  in- 
spection will  be  determined  both  by  the  charac- 
ter of  his  observations  and  by  the  use  he  makes 
of  them.  The  three  parties  most  intimately 
concerned  in  such  observations  are  the  school 
board,  the  teachers,  and  the  superintendent. 
What  the  school  board  most  needs  to  know  for 
its  guidance  is  whether  the  work  of  a  given 
teacher  is  efficient ;  and  that,  after  all,  is  what 
the  teacher  himself  most  needs  to  know,  but 
with  this  difference,  that  the  teacher  needs  to  be 
told  such  details  of  judgment  as  will  best  assist 
him  both  by  supporting  him  in  good  ways  and  by 
helping  him  to  improve  in  ways  that  are  not  good. 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  157 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  making  personal 
criticisms  or  suggestions  to  teachers,  lest  there  be 
misunderstanding  and  friction  between  them  and 
the  superintendent.  The  three  elements  which 
should  characterize  criticism  of  any  kind  are  tact, 
fairness,  and  kindness.  In  recognizing  the  good  sonal  criticism 
points  of  a  teacher's  work,  and  in  always  sug- 
gesting another  and  better  way  than  the  way 
criticised,  the  superintendent  gains  the  teacher's 
respect  and  confidence.  In  most  of  this  con- 
structive criticism  the  teachers  should  not  be 
made  to  feel  that  they  are  directed  to  teach  in  a 
particular  way.  The  better  way  should  be  in- 
telligently and  freely  followed,  or  not  at  all.  Of 
course,  if  the  neglect  or  the  poor  method  em- 
ployed is  of  a  serious  nature,  and  is  persisted  in, 
there  is  little  that  the  superintendent  can  do  but 
to  report  to  the  school  board  the  nature  of  the 
neglect  or  error,  always  avoiding  the  appearance 
of  anything  like  an  exercise  of  arbitrary  au- 
thority. 

It  is  needless  perhaps  to  say  that  the  visits  of 
the  superintendent  should  disturb  the  school  as 
little  as  possible.  It  is  doubful  if  anything  be- 
yond a  pleasant,  quiet  greeting  to  the  teacher  ^'.^'^^  mtcnup- 
upon  his  entrance  into  the  room  is  desirable,  regular  work. 
Even  the  kindly  "  Good  morning,  children  ",  by 
the  superintendent,  and  the  children's  response 
in  concert,  may  become  perfunctory  and  mean- 
ingless. 

Few  interrruptions  of  the  recitation  by  ques- 
tions or  remarks  from  the  superintendent  should 
be  made,  especially  if  the  questions  or  remarks 


158 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Record  of 
each  teachers" 
work  in  par- 
ticular lines. 


are  purposeless  or  without  meaning  to  the 
teacher.  Individual  work  with  the  pupils  at 
their  seats  is  also  no  part  of  the  superintendent's 
function  unless  for  any  reason  he  needs  to  know 
the  ability  of  certain  pupils  along  special  lines. 

Record  of  inspection. — While  it  is  true  that 
in  most  instances  a  general  opinion  of  a  teacher's 
efficiency  is  all  that  a  school  board  will  care  to 
hear  from  the  superintendent  in  determining 
their  action  as  to  his  retention  as  a  teacher  and 
while  it  is  also  true  that  a  too  close  analysis  of  a 
teacher's  work  is  not  wise,  it  will  be  found  desir- 
able for  the  superintendent  occasionally  to  make 
a  careful  estimate  of  each  teacher's  work  in  par- 
ticular lines.  The  following  outline  may  suggest 
points  of  inquiry  in  observing  a  class  recitation. 
Besides  furnishing  to  the  superintendent  valuable 
data  for  reference  the  observations  and  conclu- 
sions will  be  a  direct  test  and  challenge  of  his 
professional  ability. 

1.  Name  of  teacher,  grade  and  subject.  Num- 
ber in'class.     Time  given,  etc. 

2.  What  is  the  general  aim  or  purpose  of  the 
lesson  ?  (a)  Instruction,  (b)  examination,  (c)  drill. 

3.  Does  the  teacher  seem  to  have  clearly  in 
mind  a  specific  end  ?     If  so  what  ? 

4.  If  (a)  [see  2]  is  too  much  or  too  little  pre- 
sented V 

5.  Is  the  arrangement  of  material  good  ? 

6.  Is  there  a  connection  with  previous  lessons  ? 
If  so  what  ? 

7.  Is  there  correlation  with  other  subjects  ? 
What  and  how  ? 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor 


159 


8.  Are  the  questions  such  as  to  encourage  orig- 
inality and  self  activity  ? 

9.  Are  the  important  points  emphasized  ? 

10.  Is  the  recitation  of  pupils  such  as  to  en- 
courage comprehensiveness,  conciseness,  clear,- 
ness,  and  correct uess  of  expression  ? 

11.  Is  the  manner  of  the  teacher  animated 
and  interested  ? 

12.  Are  the  pupils  attentive  and  interested  in 
the  lesson  ? 

For  more  frequent  and  general  note-taking  of 
results  of  observation  some  such   blank  as  the  General  record 
following  may  be  used,    intended  only  for  per-  ^^^'  reference, 
sonal  use  of  the  superintendent.     The  marks  are 
made  on  a  scale  of  five,  1  being  "  very  poor" 
and  5  ' '  excellent ' ' . 


Names  of 
teachers 

Industry 
of  ]nipils 
in  study 

Attention 

of  pupils 

in  class 

Method 

of  dis- 

•I  cipline 

Skill  in 
teaching 

Manner 

of 
teacher 

General 
impres- 
sion 

Mary  Brown.. 
Sarah  White.. 
Emma  Smith. 

4 
.5 

2 

3 

1 

3 

4 

1 

4 
3 

2 
b 
2 

3 

■i 
1 

4 
4 
2 

3 

5 
2 

In  marking,  the  supervisor  of  course  may  use 
any  symbols  he  desires — letters,  figures,  or  ar- 
rangements of  dots.  There  is  an  obvious  ad- 
vantage in  having  a  record  whose  key  is  known 
only  to  the  maker  of  it. 

If  the  purpose  of  the  record  is  to  furnish  data 
for  the  giving  of  individual  advice  to  teachers, 
special  notes  of  work  observed  will  doubtless  be  g^ggij^j  „(, 
better  than  either  of   the  forms  above  noted,  of  work 
Such  notes  also  may  be  more  satisfactory  for  observed, 
reference  in  case  the  supervisor's  rating  as  pre- 
sented to  the  school  board  is  challenged  by  ag- 


160         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

grieved  parties.  The  following  form  of  rating 
teachers  by  supervisors  has  been  suggested  as 
reasonable,  comprehensive,  and  simple.  Features 
marked:  (1)  Personality,  including  character, 
p,ppearance,  manner,  voice,  etc. ;  (2)  instruction  ; 
(3)  discipline:  each  feature  to  be  marked  a,  b,  c, 
or  d;  a,  meaning  very  good;  b,  good;  c,  fair; 
and  d  unsatisfactory. 

Exaniinations. — Although  the  superintendent's 
visits  are  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the  teacher 
there  are  times  when  the  direct  work  of  the 
superintendent  with  the  pupils  will  be  most  de- 
sirable. Sometimes  the  most  effective  way  of 
suggesting  to  the  teacher  desirable  work  to  be 
done  or  of  ascertaining  whether  desirable  work 
has  been  done  is  by  way  of  short  oral  or  written 
examinations  given  at  the  time  of  the  regular 
visits 

Thus,  for  example,  the  superintendent  may 
desire  to  impress  upon  the  teacher  the  import- 
Short  oral  or  ance  of  giving  to  the  pupils  much  oral  practical 
written  exam-  work  in  arithmetic.  He  might  advise  or  even 
direct  this  to  be  done,  with  little  effect.  But  a 
brief  examination  will  open  the  teacher's  eyes 
to  the  importance  of  such  work,  especially  if  the 
results  are  poor,  and  the  examinations  along  the 
same  line  are  repeated  in  succeeding  visits. 
These  examinations,  if  oral,  may  also  illustrate 
to  the  teacher  a  method  of  questionmg  by  which 
the  maximum  of  thought  and  clear  expression 
on  the  part  of  pupils  may  be  gained. 

Occasionally  of  course  the  questions  will  be 
quite  impromptu,  being  suggested  by  what  the 


inations. 


note-book. 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  161 

teacher  or  pupils  have  done  in  recitation;  but 
generally  they  should  be  carefully  made  out  with 
direct  reference  to  the  possible  use  which  the 
results  will  serve  and  thev  should  always  have  a 

.    ,  »  •      1  , .       :         .  ,  -  Designation  of 

point.     Aimless  questioning  is  worse  than  none,   questions  in 

For  convenience  of  noting  and  of  reference, 
the  groups  of  questions  may  be  designated  by 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  The  following  questions 
will  suggest  the  form  and  kind  of  examinations 
which  may  be  made  in  the  various  grades.  The 
Roman  numerals  in  parenthesis  indicate  the 
grades  of  pupils  for  whom  the  examinations  are 
intended.  For  example  (III-Vj  means  that  the 
questions  are  intended  for  pupils  of  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  grades  or  years  in  school.  In 
ungraded  schools  the  divisions  may  be  indicated 
by  the  letters  l,  m  and  u,  which  stand  for  the 
loiuer,  middle  and  upper  divisions. 

Oral  arithmetic  A  (III-V) 

1.  Cost  of  half  a  dozen  bananas  at  the  rate  of 
three  for  five  cents  ? 

2.  Cost  of  thirty  eggs  at  twenty  cents  a  dozen  ? 

3.  How  many  times  will  a  pail  containing  1 
gal.  3  qt.  of  water  fill  a  quart  measure  ? 

4.  Cost  of  2  gal,  1  pt.  of  milk  at  8  cts.  a  quart/? 

5.  If  4  lb.  of  cheese  cost  50  cts.,  what  must 
be  paid  for  20  lb.? 

Oral  arithmetic  B  (VI-VIII) 

1.  At  the  rate  of  2  for  5  cts.,  how  many 
oranges  can  I  buy  for  $4  ? 

2.  Cost  of  1  gross  of  buttons  at  I  cts.  apiece  ? 

3.  Cost  of  3  lb.  4  oz.  of  cheese  at  12  cts.  a 
pound  ? 


162         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

4.  A  man  earns  $1|  a  day.  How  much  does 
he  earn  in  a  week  ? 

5.  At  I  of  a  dollar  a  peck,  what  must  I  pay 
for  2  bushels  of  apples  ? 

Geography  A  (VII-VIII) 

1.  Give  reasons  for  extensive  manufacturing 
in  Great  Britain. 

2.  Compare  the  area  of  France  and  that  of 
some  parts  of  our  country. 

3.  Compare  the  degrees  of  rainfall  in  the 
countries  of  Spain  and  Holland  and  explain  the 
cause  of  the  difference. 

4.  What  are  the  industries  of  Norway  ? 
Why  do  they  not  include  other  kinds  ? 

Geography  B  (III-IV) 

1.  Water  from  the  eaves  of  our  schoolhouse 
flows  towards  — —  (name  the  brook  or  river). 

2.  The  slope (east,  west  north  or  south) 

of  our  schoohouse  slopes  to  the (east,  west, 

north  or  south). 

3.  A  divide  crosses  the  road (east,  west, 

north  or  south)  of  our  schoolhouse. 

4:.  The  right  bank  of (brook  or  river  near- 
est to  the  schoolhouse)  is  the  bank  (next  to,  far- 
thest from)  the  schoolhouse. 

In  taking  notes  of  results  of  any  of  the  above 

examinations,  the  superintendent  may  write  in 

his  notebook  the  school  or  class  examined,  the 

Notes  of  results  ^^^^  ^^  ^j^^  examination,   the  set  of   questions 

in  note-book  ,. ',  -n 

given,  and  the  per  cent,  ot  correct  answers.  For 
example :  the  note  •'  Miss  Brown,  V  Oct.  2.  Arith. 
A.  65  "  means  that  the  pupils  of  Miss  Brown's 
fifth  grade  were  examined  on  the  second  day  of 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor 


163 


October  in  Arithmetic,  using  a  set  of  questions 
marked  A ,  and  that  there  were  65  ^  of  correct 
answers.  For  purposes  of  ready  comparison  the 
results  of  the  examinations  might  be  given  in 
tabular  form  thus : 


School  or 
teacher 

Titne  of 

examin- 

ation 

Class 
examined 

Subject 

Set  of 
ques- 
tions 

Per  cent 
of  correct 
answers 

Remarks 

Mary  Brown. 
Sarah  White. 

Oct.  2 
Nov.   3 

V 
IV 

Arith. 
Geog. 

A 
B 

65 
70 

1  Great  ex- 
■;  tremes-Sper- 
I  feet  papers. 

A  convenient  method  of  tabulating  the  results 
of  a  given  examination  is  to  write  a  set  of  ques- 
tioDs  on  a  page  of  the  superintendent's  notebook 
and  on  the  opposite  page  the  name  of  the  school 
or  class,  number  examined,  and  number  of  cor- 
rect answers.  Thus,  opposite  a  page  of  three  or 
five  questions  in  geography  the  results  might  be 
given  as  follows: 


School 

Time  of  ex- 
amination 

Class 
examined 

Average 
per  cent 
of  correct 
ansivers 

Re7narks 

Washington... 

Nov.  9 
Nov.  10 

VI 

M 

of) 

65 

Most  failures  in 
2a  question. 

6  pupils. 

Much   depends   upon   the   way   in  which  the 
examinations  are   given.     Two  points  of  prime 
importance  should  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  super-   Conditions  un- 
intendcDt,  or  for  that   matter  by  any  one  who  <J<^''bi"gtiH> 

.,„  ,.,.  •        i.1         r>      .       1  examinations. 

examines,  ihe  conditions,  m  the  first  place, 
should  be  such  as  wiJl  insure  the  greatest  degree 
of  freedom  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  fear 
of  failure  should  as  far  as  possible  be  removed 


16i         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

from  their  minds.  They  should  be  encouraged 
to  give  all  they  know  of  a  subject,  and  especially 
all  that  is  the  result  of  their  own  thinking. 

In  the  second  place  the  examinations  should 
be  so  conducted  that  the  pupils  will  be  entirely 
free  from  the  temptation  to  receive  any  outside 
help.  This  should  be  done  not  merely  because 
a  true  record  of  each  pupil's  attainments  is  de- 
sired, but  chiefly  because  it  gives  no  opportunity 
or  temptation  to  deceive.  By  degrees  the  habit  of 
honest  speaking  and  writing  will  be  so  fixed  that 
there  will  be  no  thought  of  deception  whgn  later 
there  may  be  an  opportunity  to  practise  it.  The 
absence  of  a  spirit  of  honor  in  examinations  so 
common  in  some  schools  is  a  sad  commentary 
upon  the  neglected  opportunities  of  moral  train- 
ing. No  amount  of  advice  in  respect  to  honor 
is  at  all  comparable  in  effect  to  the  daily  and 
hourly  guidance  in  the  practice  of  it. 

As  a  rule  ample  time  should  be  given  the  pu- 
Time  allowed  pils,  both  in  Writing  and  in  speaking  their  an- 
for  answers.  swers.  Sometimes,  however,  rapid  responses  may 
be  called  for,  especially  in  those  matters  which 
should  be  quickly  called  to  mind,  as  in  some 
foundation  facts  of  arithmetic.  In  some  examina- 
tions the  pupils  may  be  given  time  to  think  their 
answer  and  be  allowed  but  a  brief  time  for  writing 
it.  Thus  in  a  test  of  oral  or  mental  arithmetic 
the  pupils  may  be  given  a  question  at  a  time 
with  a  signal  for  writing  it. 

The  following  orders  will  illustrate  this  point: 
(I)  "  Ready  " — with  pencil  and  paper  (or  slate) 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  165 

(2)  "Price  of    10^  lb.  of  beef    at  16  cts.    a 

pound?"  A  method  of 

^  examining 

(Pupils  keep  answer  in   the   mind   till   next  suggested. 
order  is  given) 

(3)  "  Write  answer"  (pupils  quickly  write 
figures  only  of  answer  in  the  upper  right-hand 
corner) 

(4)  "  Pencils  down  " 

(5)  "  Those  who  have  168  hold  up  the  paper  " 
(or  slate). 

The  answers  may  be  quickly  inspected  and  if 
needed  note  may  be  taken  of  the  result.  Quick- 
ness, accuracy,  and  freedom  from  collusion  char- 
acterize such  an  exercise,  serving  the  double  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  what  the  class  has  done  and  of 
indicating  to  the  teacher  work  which  either  has 
been  well  done  or  ought  to  be  done  more  thor- 
oughly. 

Considerable  space  has  been  given  here  to  the 
methods  of  brief  occasional  examinations  in  the 
hope  of  showing  their  superiority  over  the  longer  Formal  written 
and  more  formal  examinations  sometimes  given  exammatious 
by  principals  and  superintendents.     The  latter  temieut  should 
kind  of  examinations  may  be  occasionally  given,   be  few. 
but  if  they  are  frequently  given  and  especially  if 
they  are  given  as  a  full  or  partial  test  of  the 
ability  of  the  pupils  to  go  into  a  higher  class, 
they  are  open  to  grave  objections.     The  inevit- 
able result  of  such  examinations  is  to  force  the 
teacher   into   the    employment   of    means   and 
methods  which  are  now  deprecated  by  the  best 
teachers. 

In  the  first  place,  while  a  general  examination 


166         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Objections  to 
examinations 
for  promotion. 


furnishes  a  basis  for  comparison  it  is  unjust  in 
not  being  given  with  reference  to  the  needs  of 
any  particular  school  or  teacher.  It  may  be 
needed  in  some  schools  while  it  is  for  other 
schools  unnecessary  and  even  harmful. 

But  the  greatest  objection  to  the  formal  ex- 
amination for  promotion  given  by  a  superin- 
tendent or  principal  lies  in  its  cramping  effect 
upon  teachers  and  pupils.  The  questions  so 
given  are  a  test  of  information  only  and  of  such 
information  as  may  be  found  in  the  text-book. 
Not  many  outside  or  general  questions  are  in- 
cluded in  the  tests  because  it  is  seen  to  be  mani- 
festly unfair  to  ask  such  questions  with  conse- 
quences so  mometous  as  are  involved  in  the  pro- 
motion of  pupils.  Superintendents  who  would 
not  scruple  to  blame  teachers  indirectly  by 
giving  questions  whose  answers  cannot  be  found 
in  the  text-book  v>^ould  hesitate  to  punish  the 
children  in  that  way.  The  result  is  that  in 
schools  where  the  promotions  depend  in  full  or 
in  part  upon  tests  given  by  an  outside  examiner 
the  work  comes  to  be  largely  that  of  the  verbal 
memory,  a  kind  of  loading-up-process  of  informa- 
tion in  anticipation  of  the  unloading  process 
of  an  examination. 

It  is  this  loading  and  unloading  process  which 
has  prompted  some  one  to  define  the  examina- 
tion as  a  "  permission  to  forget  ",  a  definition 
which  is  recognized  in  the  preparation  for  col- 
lege, where  the  requirements  for  admission  de- 
mand an  examination  upon  certain  books.  The 
limited  capacity  of  the  pupils  in  respect  to  the 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  167 

information  load  is  recognized  by  the  college, 
and  the  difficulty  is  met  by  the  ingenious  plan 
of  preliminaries  in  which  the  overburdened 
candidates  are  permitted  to  forget  on  the  instal- 
meut  plan. 

But  these  strictures  upon  examinations  can  in 
no  way  apply  to  examinations  given  by  the 
teachers  themselves,  or  to  the  examinations  by  some  examina- 
superintendents  or  principals  when  the  main  tions  desirable, 
purpose  is  to  test  the  power  of  the  pupils  and  to 
give  a  hint  to  teachers  of  the  kind  of  work 
which  it  is  desirable  to  do.  Good  teachers 
everywhere  recognize  the  helpfulness  of  such 
examinations  and  welcome  them. 

Written  -examinations  upon  special  lines  of 
work  may  also  be  given  to  a  certain  school 
whenever  it  is  found  that  wrong  lines  are  fol- 
lowed or  wrong  subjects  are  emphasized.  For 
example  if  the  pupils  of  a  sixth  grade  are 
acquiring  too  few  facts  in  history  or  are  acquir- 
ing unimportant  facts,  a  set  of  questions  care- 
fully prepared  by  the  superintendent  should  be 
given  to  the  school,  and  the  teacher  be  asked  to 
mark  the  papers.  If  it  seems  desirable  ques- 
tions may  be  given  to  the  same  grade  of  pupils  in 
other  schools  for  the  purpose  of  a  comparison  of 
results. 

Teachisig. — The  superintendent,  if  sure  of  his 
ability  as  a  teacher,  might  in  addition  to  exam- 
ining pupils  give  model  lessons  in  teaching.     He  The  supcim- 

^  ^    '^         »  n       ,       -1,       ,       i  •    i    teudent  togive 

ought  at  least  to  be  ready  to  illustrate  a  pomt  „^^,|^,i  icggons. 
of  teaching  or  questioning  which  he  may  have 
made  in  the  teachers'  meeting  or  to  teachers 


168         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

individually,  by  taking  a  class  of  pupijs.  He 
may  not  be  able  to  teach  all  subjects  as  well  as 
some  of  his  teachers,  but  he  should  be  able  to 
illustrate  by  example  any  principle  he  has  given. 
This  may  be  done  in  response  to  a  teacher's  re- 
quest, or  at  his  own  instance.  If  for  any  reason 
however,  he  desires  to  conduct  a  recitation,  it 
would  be  well  to  ask  the  permission  of  the  teacher 
rather  than  assume  it  as  a  right  and  thus  appear 
to  the  pupils  to  dictate.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  all  appearances  of  criticism  of  the  teacher 
before  his  pupils  should  be  avoided. 

The  two  classes  of  teachers  who  ought  espec- 
ially to  feel  the  influence  of  the  superintendent 
are  the  poorest  teachers  and  the  best?  ones.  The 
former  are  to  be  made  better,  if  possible,  by 
judicious  assistance,  and  the  latter  are  to  be  sup- 
support  as  ported  by  judicious  praise.  Those  who  stand  be- 
weii  as  advice,  tween  these  two  classes  will  undoubtedly  be 
greatly  assisted  by  both  kinds  of  influences 
named.  It  may  not  be  the  superintendent's  busi- 
ness to  fit  untrained  persons  for  the  profession 
of  teaching,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  his  duty  to 
correct  as  far  as  possible  the  poor  methods  of 
teaching  which  he  finds,  while  it  is  equally  his 
duty  to  encourage  in  all  possible  ways  the  wise 
efforts  of  good  teachers. 

The  removal  of  iuefficieut  teachers. — All  this 
suggests  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the 
schools  and  of  no  little  concern  to  the  superin- 
tendent, viz.,  how  to  get  rid  of  incompetent  teach- 
ers. A  teacher  may  fail  from  one  of  two  causes, 
— either  he  is  unable  to  improve  on  account   of 


Teachers    need 


The   Superintendent  as  Supervisor  1(19 

existing  conditions,  or  he  is  unable  to  improve 
under  any  conditions.  In  the  former  case,  the 
conditions  might  be  changed  by  transferring  him 
to  another  school, or  by  giving  him  special  assist- 
ance; in  the  latter  case,  the  teacher  should  be 
dismissed,  or  be  allowed  to  resign.  In  any  case, 
it  is  assumed  that  the  superintendent  has  pointed 
out  to  the  teacher  his  faults,  and  has  tried  all 
the  means  in  his  power  to  correct  them. 

To  insure  wise  and  firm  action  on  the  part  of 
the  board  in  respect  to  the  transfer  or  removal  ^^j^^^  ^^  ^^ 
of  incompetent  teachers,  it  is  advisable  for  the  with  incompe- 
superintendent  to  explain  to  individual  members  tent  teachers, 
what  he  has  done,  and  perhaps  to  show  them 
the  difference  between  the  work  of  poor  teach- 
ers and  that  of  good  ones.  By  such  means 
members  of  the  board  whose  interests  lie  in  the 
schools  will  not  be  influenced  to  retain  incompe- 
tent teachers  from  personal,  political,  or  senti- 
mental motives.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
there  are  likely  to  be  some  teachers  retained  in 
service  who  are  not  approved  by  the  superin- 
tendent. In  such  cases,  the  issue  should  be 
squarely  made,  wholly  on  the  ground  of  the  well- 
being  of  the  schools.  If  there  is  no  disposition  on 
the  part  of  the  board  to  act  in  the  interests  of 
the  schools,  and  there  is  a  persistent  effort  to 
elect  and  retain  teachers  on  other  grounds  tlian 
those  of  efficiency;  and  if,  further,  there  is  no 
sign  of  a  disapproval  of  such  action  on  the  part 
of  the  people,  then  the  superintendent  is  justi- 
fied in  moving  to  another  field. 

There  is  one  powerful  agency  in  the  retention 


170         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


The    influence 
of  division 
committees 
pernicious. 


Local  teachers' 
associations. 


as  well  as  in  the  election  of  poor  teachers  which 
may  be  spoken  of  here,  although  it  has  no  direct 
relation  to  the  duties  of  the  superintendent — the 
agency  of  division  committees  of  the  school- 
board  to  whom  is  committed  the  duty  of  recom- 
mending the  election  .or  re-election  of  teachers. 
There  could  be  no  plan  devised  better  calculated 
to  encourage  a  spirit  of  log-rolling  than  this,  for 
the  recommendations  of  each  committee  are  ex- 
pressly made  with  the  understanding  that  its  ac- 
tion will  not  be  questioned.  Each  committee 
practically  says  that  it  will  interfere  with  no  other 
committee  so  long  as  it  is  not  interfered  vrith. 
If  such  committees  exist,  their  powers  ought  to 
be  limited  by  the  rules  of  the  board  according  to 
which  their  action  must  receive  the  sanction  of 
the  superintendent. 

Teachers'  meetings. — One  important  if  not  es- 
sential means  of  raising  the  work  of  the  teach- 
ers to  greater  efficiency  is  the  teachers'  meet- 
ing. There  are  several  kinds  of  such  meet- 
ings which  may  be  held  either  directly  or  in- 
directly under  the  auspices  of  the  superintendent, 
viz. : — 

1.  Meetings  of  local  teachers^  associations,  in 
which  papers  are  read  and  discussed.  These 
meetings  should  be  directly  in  charge  of  the 
teachers,  with  such  assistance  as  the  superinten- 
dent may  be  able  to  give.  It  may  seem  advisa- 
ble at  these  meetings  to  consider  matters  of 
general  as  well  as  professional  interest,  and  to 
invite  one  or  more  specialists  to  present  papers 
for  discussion.     The  following  programmes  sent 


I  he   Superintendent  as  Supervisor  171 

to  members  of  a  local  association    indicate  the 
possible  character  of  the  meetings : 

1  heading  of  records 

2  Special  business:   reports  of  committees,  etc. 

3  Address  by of 

Subject: — Practical  ways  of  correlation 

Discussion  opened  by  Miss  A.  and  Mr.  B. 


Small  meetings 


1  Opening  exercises 

2  Miscellaneous  business 

3  Educational  progress  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

4  The  art  of  study 

Sup't 

5  Discussion 
2,  Meetings  for  reading  and  study,  in  which 

some  particular  topic  or  book  is  made  the  sub-  for  study' 
ject  of  discussion.  The  superintendent  may  or 
may  not  have  the  direction  of  these  meetings, 
although  his  advice  will  be  likely  to  be  needed  in 
making  a  choice  of  subjects.  On  some  accounts 
it  will  be  found  best  for  the  membership  of  these 
circles  to  be  limited  to  a  small  number. 

If  a  book  is  made  the  subject  of  discussion 
the  portion  assigned  for  discussion  should  be 
read  beforehand  by  every  member  of  the  circle. 
Definite  questions  may  be  assigned  for  members 
to  consider,  or  the  assignment  may  be  made  by 
pages.  If  a  special  topic  is  to  be  considered,  sub- 
divisions of  the  topic  may  be  assigned  to  differ- 
ent members  to  discuss.  The  announcement  of 
the  topic  may  include  suggestions  in  the  form 


programm 


172         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

of    questions.     The    following    embodiment    of 
this  idea  is  copied  from  an  actual  programme:* 
Subject   for    discussion:    '^Motives   and   in- 
stincts as  bases  of  discipline.^ ^ 

SUGGESTIONS 

study  the  article  on  this  subject  in  the  June 
^     (1901)  number  of  "  Educational  Foundations  ". 
The  following  questions  are  based  on  the  arti- 
An actual  (.jg  named: 

What  is  meant  by  disci  pine  ? 

What  do  you  consider  the  chief  motives  which 
a  teacher  should  use  ? 

What  value  do  you  give  to  love  of  approbation 
and  fear  of  censure  as  motives  ? 

Should  emulation  be  used  as  an  incentive  for 
the  child's  best  work  ?     Give  reasons. 

Discuss : 

(1)  "  The  value  of  rewards  and  punishments 
is  in  inverse  ratio  to  their  number  " 

(2)  "  Rewards  and  punishments  should  be 
given  not  for  the  possession  or  absence  of  facul- 
ties but  for  their  use  and  non-use  " 

(3)  "  The  justice  of  the  awards  must  be  un- 
questionable " 

What  value  has  suspension  as  a  form  of  pun- 
ishment and  how  should  it  be  used  ? 

How  may  the  curiosity  of  children  be  made 
effective  as  a  school  incentive  ? 


If  the  number  of  members  is  small  and  it  is 


*Prepared  by  Superintendent  Asher  J.  Jacoby, 
Milton,  Mass. 


Ihe  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  173 

not  desired  to  study  or  read  in  advance  of  the 
meeting,  the  reading  may  be  consecutive,  each 
topic  being  discussed  after  the  reading. 

3.  General  teachers''  meetings,  in  which  mat- 
ters of  common  interest  to  all  the  teachers  are 
piesented.  These  should  be  directly  in  charge  Meetings  for 
of  the  superintendent,  and  a  large  part  of  the  ^^a^jjiei's  of  aU 
time  should  be  occupied  by  him.  The  most  im- 
portant and  prominent  subject  for  consideration 
at  these  meetings  should  be  the  suggestions  of 
the  superintendent,  based  upon  his  notes  of  in- 
spection. These  notes  should  be  carefully  ar- 
ranged, with  abundant  illustrations.  Following 
this  in  importance  is  the  consideration  of  some 
vital  subject  connected  with  teaching,  in  which 
there  should  be  a  free  and  full  discussion  by  the 
teachers,  preceded  by  a  short  address  either  by 
the  superintendent  or  by  some  other  person  in- 
vited  for  the  purpose. 

For  the  illustration  of  any  principle  or  method 
of  teaching,  a  class  of  pupils  may  be  brought 
before  the  meeting  taught  either  by  the  superin- 
tendent or  by  one  of  the  teachers.  In  any  case  it 
should  be  regarded  as  a  model  lesson  to  illustrate 
a  special  point,  and  to  furnish  the  subject  for 
discussion  in  which  all  the  teachers  are  expected 
to  take  part. 

Ji-.  Grade  meetings,  in  which  only  topics  of 
special  interest  are  considered,  such  as  the  lim- 
itations respecting  the  work  of  a  given  grade,  or  '""'^'"^^  '"6* 
the  most  important  subject  to  be  taken  uj).  The 
superintendent,  of  course,  will  take  a  prominent 
part  in  the  discussion  of  these  subjects,  and  see 


1Y4         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

that  each  teacher  clearly  understands  the  con- 
clusions reached. 

Occasionally  in  grade  meetings  a  model  lesson 
may  be  given  to  illustrate  some  method  of  pre- 
senting a  new  subject  or  of  reviewing  a  subject 
already  studied,  but  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  exercise  has  a  jDoint  or  points  which  will  fur- 
nish the  basis  for  suggestions  by  the  superin- 
tendent or  for  a  discussion  by  members  of  the 
section. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  attendance  of  teach- 
ers at  teachers'  meetings  should  be  entirely  vol- 
Attendance  by  ^j^^ary.     Of  course  the  aim  should  be  to  make 

teachers  vol-  '' 

untaiy.  the  meetings  so  attractive  and  profitable  that  no 

teacher  will  wish  to  miss  a  single  one^  but  there 
need  be  few  meetings  which  teachers  should  feel 
obliged  to  attend.  If  possible,  the  times  of 
meetings  should  be  so  arranged  that  no  one  will 
feel  overburdened  if  he  attends  them  all.  An 
average  of  one  meeting  a  week  should  be  the 
maximum.  Two  meetings  a  month  will  be 
likely  to  be  as  many  as  most  teachers  will  be  able 
to  attend  conveniently.  Consideration  especially 
should  be  had  for  those  who  are  obliged  to  hire 
a  carriage  or  to  walk  a  long  distance  in  order  to  be 
present. 

Training  of  teachers. — Superintendents  may 
heartily  agree  with  what  has  been  said  as  to  the 
needed  qualifications  of  teachers  and  still  be  con- 
fronted by  a  condition  of  affairs  which  forces  upon 
them  an  undesirable  alternative :  that  is  to  say, 
instead  of  electing  only  well  qualified  persons  to 
positions  as  teachers  the  school  board  may  persist 


TJie  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  175 

in  employing  untrained  and  inexperienced  teach-  ghaii  local 
ers.     When   such   teachers    are    employed  the  training 
question    persistently    presses   itself    upon  the  ^^^^^^^  ^^ 
superintendent  whether  he  will  make  the  best 
of  the  situation  by  training  as  best  he  may  the 
teachers  in  service  or  whether  failing  to  induce 
the  school  board  to  elect  teachers  having  the  de- 
sired qualifications,  he  will  endeavor  to  establish 
a   training   school   in   which   local   high  school 
graduates    may   receive    some   preparation   for 
teaching. 

There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  inferiorit}^ 
of  an  ordinary  city  training  school  to  n  good 
state  normal  school  as  a  means  of  preparing 
teachers  for  their  work;  neither  can  there  be 
any  doubt  as  to  the  inadequacy  of  the  training 
which  any  local  training  school  can  give  to  young 
women  just  out  of  the  high  school.  The  altern- 
ative sometimes  presented  lies  between  such 
preparation  as  the  local  training  school  can  give 
and  no  professional  preparation  whatever. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  for  the  superintendent 
to   plead   urgently   for   the   establishment  of  a 
training  school.     The  scheme  will  appeal  at  once 
to  those  members  of  the  school  board  and  com-  x^t  difficult  to 
munity  who  see  in  it  an  easy  means  of  securing  establish  a 
without  great  expense  places  for  their  own  towns-  ''i'^'>»"fe'«'^'^*'"'- 
people.     Besides  it  can  be  easily  made  to  appear 
that  the  carrying  on  of  a  training  school  will  be 
attended  by  an  actual  saving  of  expense.     But 
before  recommending  such  a  course,  the  superin- 
tendent should  exhaust  every  argument  for  the 
adoption    of    a   standard    of    qualifications   for 


176         School  Orgmiization  and  Supervision 

teachers  distinctly  higher  than  that  which  is  at- 
epan  or  a    ^^^^jj^g^j  jj-^  ^  local  traininar  school  as  ordinarily 

small  training  '^  •' 

school.  conducted.     If  however  it  seems    advisable   to 

establish  a  training  school  nothing  short  of  a 
good  two  years  course  with  competent  instruc- 
tors should  be  considered.  The  following  plan  is 
suggested  as  effective  and  feasible  for  a  small 
city. 

Plant :  A  building  or  buildings  having  ten 
or  more  school  rooms  with  recitation  room 
facilities. 

Teaching  force  :  Five  or  six  excellent  super- 
vising or  Clitic  teachers  whose  function  it  is  to 
teach  in  the  grades  and  to  supervise  the  teaching 
of  the  pupil  teachers,  a  special  teacher  of  draw- 
ing and  of  industrial  training,  and  one  or  two 
teachers  of  the  history,  theory  and  practice  of 
education. 

Course  :  Two  years — First  year — Study  of  the 
history  and  principles  of  education;  obser- 
vation and  practice  of  teaching  under  super- 
vision. 

Second  year — Study  of  theory  continued,  with 
Purpose  of  increased  amount  of  practice  with  and  without 
training  school  direct  supervision. 

The  course  of  study  as  above  outlined  aims  (1) 
to  inculcate  by  lectures  and  study  of  books  the 
most  important  theories  and  principles  of  educa- 
tion;  (-2)  to  test  those  theories  and  principles  by 
means  of  observation  and  practice;  and  (3)  to 
familiarize  the  students  by  responsible  practice 
with  the  art  of  teaching  and  management.  Thus 
the  laboratory  and  apprentice  ideas  of  training 


course. 


schools  and 
colleges. 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  177 

will  be  as  fully  developed  as  circumstances  will 
permit. 

A   training   school  'of    a   higher    order — one   ,      .  . 

1-1  •  111-  T  -^  training 

which  presupposes  superior  scholarship  and  pro-  school  for  grad- 
fessional  ability  on  the  part  of  the  students  may  uates  of  norma 
be  established  after  the  following  plan : 

Plant :  School-rooms  sufficient  in  number  for 
each  pupil  teacher  to  have  a  room. 

Membership  and  duties  :  Only  graduates  of  a 
normal  school  or  college  to  be  admitted,  each 
member  being  expected  to  teach  most  of  the 
time,  with  and  without  supervision. 

Teaching  force  :  A  principal  and  one  critic  or 
supervising  teacher  for  every  four  pupil  teach- 
ers, the  principal  and  supervising  teachers  to 
give  instruction  one  hour  a  day  in  each  class  in 
the  principles  of  teaching  and  to  inspect  and  over- 
see the  work  of  the  j^upil  teachers.  A  com- 
paratively small  salary  should  be  offered  the 
pupil  teachers  for  services  rendered  in  teaching. 

The  superiuteiuleiit's  report. — Reference  has 
been  made  to  the  desirability  of  the  superintend- 
ent's making  to  the  board  a  monthly  statement 
of  the  condition  of  the  schools  and  such  recom-  ,  '<^^"i|*^""' 

tcndent  s 

mendations  as  need  to  be  made.     This  report  monthly  report 
should  be  carefully  and  judiciously  made.     It  to  the  school 
should   contain  such  facts  as  members  of  the  ^'^"''^■ 
board  need  to  have  for  an  intelhgent  appreciation 
of  what  is  being  done  in  the  schools  and  what 
ought  to  be  done  by  the  board.     Minute  details 
of  administration  or  a  long  array,  of  statistics 
will  not  be  needed,  neither  will  it  be  advisable 
to  present  many  theories  of  administration  or 


178         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


The  superin- 
tendent's an- 
nual report. 


teaching  in  the  monthly  report.  The  confidence 
of  the  school  board  will  be  won  more  by  a  state- 
ment of  what  is  actually  done  than  by  a  repeti- 
tion of  fine-spun  theories.  The  following  items 
are  suggested  as  worthy  of  attention  in  the 
monthly  report: 

(1)  Facts  in  relation  to  school  buildings  w^hich 
are  needed  to  carry  out  the  superintendent's 
recommendations  for  permanent  repairs  or  new 
buildings 

(2)  facts  of  school  attendance,  especially  facts 
of  such  increase  of  numbers  as  will  make  neces- 
sary increased  accommodations 

(3)  report  upon  the  business  committed  to  him 
by  the  board 

(4)  resignations  of  teachers  and  recommend- 
ations for  supply  of  vacancies 

(5)  other  recommendations  for  board's  action 

(6)  plans  of  work  in  progress  and  in  contem- 
plation. 

If  the  superintendent  has  the  business  affairs 
of  the  board  to  look  after,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  include  in  the  report  such  items  as  approved 
bills  and  unexpended  balances  for  the  various 
departments. 

Scarcely  less  important  than  the  regular  month- 
ly report  is  the  annual  report,  which,  with  the 
report  of  the  school  board,  should  be  bound  in 
pamphlet  form  and  distributed  to  the  citizens. 
This  report  although  it  is  addressed  directly  to 
the  school  board  should  be  made  with  reference 
to  the  needs  not  only  of  the  members  of  the 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  179 

board  but  also  of  every  parent  and  taxpayer. 
What  the  people  most  need  to  know  is  the  exact 
work  that  has  been  done  in  and  for  the  schools. 
Statistics  should  be  limited  to  the  items  called 
for  by  state  and  national  boards,  and  may  be 
placed  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  report  in  the 
appendix.  The  body  of  the  report  may  contain 
a  more  or  less  elaborate  treatment  of  the  follow- 
ing topics : 

(1)  Comments  upon  the  statistics  contained  in 
the  tables,  with  such  comparisons  as  may  be 
needed  to  bring  out  clearly  certain  results  or 
needs  of  the  schools.  For  example  if  it  is  de- 
sired to  call  attention  to  the  increased  attendance 
in  the  higher  grades,  a  comparison  of  present 
and  past  percentages  of  attendance  in  those 
grades  might  be  made,  together  with  a  compari- 
son of  such  attendance  with  the  attendance  in 
other  places.  Or  if  more  money  is  needed  for 
the  salaries  of  teachers  it  may  be  shown  that 
not  so  much  is  done  in  the  city  or  town  for 
which  the  report  is  made  as  is  done  in  other 
places  similarily  situated. 

(2)  A  record  of  school  accommodations  with 
reference  to  present  and  furture  needs.  That 
part  of  the  record  should  be  especially  empha- 
sized which  relates  to  sanitation  and  health.  If 
the  lighting  and  ventilation  of  any  of  the  school 
rooms  are  poor,  the  fact  should  be  pointed  out, 
with  such  evidence  of  the  needed  changes  as  can 
be  offered. 

(3)  Any  new  plans  of  administration  which 
have  been  carried  out ;  as  for  example  methods  of 


180         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Relative 
amount  of 
time  for  super 
vision. 


promotions,    individual    instruction,    or    stamp 
savings. 

(4)  Account  of  plans  referred  to  in  previous 
reports. 

(5)  Resignations  and  appointments  during  the 
year. 

(6)  Discussion  of  general  questions  in  which 
the  parents  are  interested,  e.  g.,  home  study, 
physical  training. 

(7)  Desirable  changes;  e.  g.,  medical  inspec- 
tion of  the  schools;  establishment  of  one  or 
more  schools  for  backward  children;  introduc- 
tion of  the  kindergarten. 

(8)  Educational  agencies  other  than  schools; 
e.  g.,  the  local  educational  association;  the  pub- 
lic library ;  art  collections. 

(9)  Reports  of  special  teachers:  manual  train- 
ing, drawing,  etc. 

Occasionally  there  may  be  given  in  the  report 
a  detailed  account  of  exactly  what  is  done  in  the 
schools  in  special  subjects  as  reading  or  arith- 
metic. Some  superintendents  take  up  in  this 
way  one  subject  each  year  and  treat  it  exhaust- 
ively, making  their  report  not  only  a  matter  of 
local  interest  but  also  a  contribution  to  educa- 
tional theory  and  practice. 

Amount  of  time  for  supervision.— The  relative 
time  which  a  superintendent  should  give 
to  the  duties  of  supervision  will  of  course 
depend  upon  circumstances.  In  a  large  sys- 
tem of  schools  many  of  the  duties  outlined 
above   may   well  be   performed    by  principals. 


The  Superintendent  as  Supervisor  181 

under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  superin- 
tendent. In  small  places  where  most  of  the 
teachers  are  untrained  a  large  part  of  the  super- 
intendent's time  should  be  givea  to  actual  in- 
spection of  the  schools  and  to  such  direction  of 
the  work  of  teachers  as  will  give  to  it  the  largest 
measure  of  efficiency.  But  as  already  indicated, 
the  teacher's  efficiency  is  determined  more  by  the 
self-direction  of  his  own  intelligence  than  by  any 
dictation  from  others  however  inteUigent  it  may 
be.  A  wise  direction  of  the  work  of  teachers 
therefore  does  not  mean  arbitrary  dictation  or 
the  imposition  of  methods  upon  teachers  that 
can  not  be  made  their  own  but  it  means  the 
adoption  of  such  means  as  will  increase  their 
professional  knowledge  and  help  them  to  apply 
it  in  skilful  ways. 


CHAPTER  A'lII 

THE    SUPERDfTENDENT   AND  COMMUNITY    INTERESTS 

The  uniting  of  the  home  and  school  in  bonds 
.  of  mutual  helpfulness  and  the  extension  of  the 
school  so  as  directly  to  benefit  all  members  of 
the  community  are  ends  which  all  agree  to  be 
most  desirable.  Amono-  the  wavs  of  reachins; 
these  ends  in  which  the  superintendent  mav 
well  take  the  initiative  are  using  the  school 
buildings  for  parents  meetings  and  social  gath- 
erings, and  estabhshing  e^-ening  and  Saturday 
classes  for  those  who  cannot  attend  the  regular 
day  school.  These  means  of  culture  have 
already  been  referred  to  in  treating  of  educa- 
tional centres  and  vacation  schools.* 

Parents'  meetings. — There  are  various  ways  of 
:^i:eetmg  of  bringing  the  parents  and  school  authorities  to- 
parents  gether  for  the  purpose  of  talking  over  matters 

of  mutual  interest.  Oneway,  perhaps  the  sim- 
plest, is  for  the  superintendent  to  invite  the  par- 
ents to  a  teachers'  meeting  in  which  subjects  of 
general  interest  will  be  discussed,  such  as  home 
study,  school  hygiene,  or  school  discipline.  After 
the  superintendent  has  presented  such  points  as 
he  desires  to  make,  opportunity  should  be 
given  for  a  free  interchange  of  opinions  by  per- 
sons present. 

Another  good  way  of  reaching  the  parents  is 

*See  pp.  140-143. 

(182) 


Parents'  meet- 
ing in  connec- 
tion with  visit 
inar  day. 


The  Superintendent  and  Community  Interests  183 

to  call  a  meeting  of  parents  in  connection  with 

the  school  visiting   day.     It   is  the  custom   of 

some  schools  to  have  it  known  in  the  community 

that  there  is  a  day  or  half  day  every  month  upon 

which   parents  and  all  others  interested  in  the 

school   will    be   especially  welcome.     For  such 

occasions  special  invitations  aie  sent  to  parents 

through  the  pupils,  it  being  understood  that  with 

little  variation  the  regular  w^ork  of  the  school 

will  be  seen.     After   the    afternoon   session   of 

these  days  while  the  work  of  the  school  is  fresh 

in  mind,  many  of  the  visitors  will  be  glad  to 

hear  from  the  supeiintendent  and  teachers  some 

explanation  of  the  exercises  given  and  a  state-       ^ 

ment  of  plans  and  purposes  of  the  work  of  the  j^d^ipatiouai 

school.     Opportunity   for    questions   should   be  i)ians  aud  uews 

given  and  for  such  comment  as  any  of  the  visi-  '"  the  local 

tors  care  to  make.     Some  superintendents  and  "^'^^^P^i^^'' 

teachers  have  found  it  pleasant  for  all  concerned 

to  spend  a  portion  of  the  time  afforded  for  these 

meetings    socially,     light    refreshments    being 

served. 

Educational  associations. — One  of  the  best 
means  of  securing  the  coiiperation  and  support 
of  citizens  in  the  w^ork  of  the  schools  has  been 
found  to  be  the  local  educational  association. 
The  membership  of  the  association  consists  of 
parents  and  teachers  and  all  others  interested  in 
the  schools.  Tlie  organization  and  work  of  the 
various  associations  differ  quite  materially  on 
account  of  a  difference  of  conditions,  but  in 
all  of  them  there  are  sought  the  arousing  of 
public  interest  in  the  schools  through  addresses, 


184         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

discussions,  and  conferences,  and  the  bringing  to- 
gether of  all  the  educational  forces  of  the  commu- 
nity. In  some  of  the  associations  efficient  com- 
mittee service  has  been  rendered  in  accomplishing 
such  purposes  as  the  establishment  of  kindergar- 
tens, and  the  decoration  of  schoorooms.  There 
is  great  opportunity  in  such  associations  to 
awaken  a  public  sentiment  in  needed  reforms 
such  as  better  ventilation  and  lighting  of  school 
rooms,  a  greater  degree  of  attention  to  physical 
training,  the  introduction  of  industrial  training, 
home  reading,  conditions  of  health,  home  study 
recreation  for  children,  etc. 

The  local  neivspaper. — Among  the  agencies 
which  may  be  employed  in  awakening  an  interest 
n  the  schools  and  in  furthering  progressive  plans 
of  administration  is  the  local  newspaper.  Edi- 
tors are  generally  willing  to  open  their  columns 
to  educational  matters  of  public  concern,  and 
for  the  good  of  the  schools  such  matters  should 
not  be  confined  to  complaints.  In  many  in- 
stances complaints  of  the  schools  by  parents 
and  citizens  arise  from  a  misunderstanding  of 
actual  conditions  or  of  what  the  purposes  of 
Illustration  of    ^^^   g^j^^^j    authorities   really   are.     Such  com- 

the  use  of  a  *^ 

newspaper  in     plaints    would    therefore    be    prevented    by    a 
the  interests  of  regular      and     systematic       presentation      of 
the  schools.        -^hat    is   actually   being   done   in   and  for   the 
schools. 

It  is  evident  that  the  information  given  should 
be  under  the  direction  of  some  one  who  has  an 
interest  in  the  schools,  and  who  has  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  what   they  are  doing.     Naturally    the 


The  Superintendent  and  Community  Interests  185 

superintendent  is  the  person  best  fitted  to  do  this 
work.  As  the  executive  of  the  school  commit- 
tee he  knows  fully  the  plans  of  administration ; 
and  as  supervisor,  he  is  familiar  with  what  is 
going  on  in  the  schools.  He  is  able,  therefore, 
as  no  one  else  is,  to  give  a  true  and  judicious 
account  of  what  is  being  done  for  the  good  of 
the  schools. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  possible  usefulness 
of  this  service  the  following  instance  is  given 
of  what  appeared  in  a  newspaper  which  had  a 
circulation  in  several  county  towns.  The  editor 
had  assigned  a  column  of  each  issue  for  the  use 
of  the  schools,  giving  it  the  heading  "School  Local  educa^ 
Department  ".  It  was  in  charge  of  the  superin-  ^|""'^'  associa- 
tendent  of  schools  of  a  union  district  comprising 
towns  in  which  there  were  many  subscribers. 
In  one  issue  the  following  items  were  given : 

(1)  Plans  of  the  superintendent  for  securing 
a  regular  attendance  of  pupils,  and  a  statement 
as  to  which  schools  in  the  district  had  the  best 
attendance  during  the  month 

(2)  an  account  of  the  Thanksgiving  exercises 
in  two  of  the  schools 

(3)  names  of  pupils  in  one  town  who  were  not 
absent  during  the  term 

(4)  notice  of  the  discontinuance  of  the  schools 
of  one  town  for  two  weeks 

(5)  details  of  plans  concerning  penny  collec- 
tions for  a  yearly  subscription  to  a  paper  which 
gives  a  weekly  statement  of  current  events 

(6)  plans  for  collecting  pictures  for  the  schools. 
In  another  issue  of  the  same  paper  there  was 


186  School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Superintend- 
ent's letter  to 
parents. 


printed  a  long  letter  from  the  superintendent  to 
the  teachers,  a  letter  which  was  of  special  inter- 
est to  parents. 

Superintendents  are  sometimes  able  to  make 
an  arrangement  with  the  editor  by  which  the  best 
compositions  of  various  grades  of  schools  are 
printed. 

Such  means  of  making  known  to  the  public 
what  -the  schools  are  actually  doing,  and  thereby 
helping  to  create  a  good  public  sentiment  in 
their  favor  should  be  more  widely  adopted  in 
the  country  towns  and  with  some  modification 
might  be  used  with  advantage  in  cities. 

SiiperintendenV s  letter  to  parents. — One  means 
of  reaching  parents  other  than  those  already 
mentioned  is  the  circular  letter  sent  by  the  super- 
intendent to  the  parents  of  every  child  attend- 
ing school.  Such  a  letter  will  be  more  likely  to 
be  read  by  parents  than  the  annual  report  and 
its  statements  and  suggestions  respecting  mat- 
ters of  mutual  concern  will  have  the  force  of  a 
personal  message. 

An  example  of  this  method  of  reaching  par- 
ents comes  to  mind.  It  was  a  letter  sent  at  the 
beginning  of  a  school  year  in  which  four  matters 
were  treated  viz.,  physical  health,  .home  study 
and  recreation,  punctuality  and  regularity  of  at- 
tendance, and  attention  and  diligence  in  school. 
The  character  of  the  letter  may  be  seen  by  the 
following  detached  sentences  quoted  at  random. 

' '  As  the  home  holds  the  school  responsible  for 
what  is  done  there,  so  the  school  must  look  to 
the  home  to  do  its  part  in  keeping  the  children 


The  Superintendent  and  Community  Interests     187 

in  such  physical  condition  that  they  are  able  to 
put  forth  their  best  efforts." 

"  All  school  childi 3n  even  those  in  the  high 
school,  need  plenty  of  sleep." 

"  There  is  no  hope  of  meeting  the  exacting 
requirements  of  the  higher  institutions  on  the 
part  of  youth  who  are  permitted  to  attend  par- 
ties and  entertainments  that  involve  late  hours, 
neither  can  they  be  dismissed  from  school  to 
attend  places  of  amusement." 

''  Whenever  a  pupil  knows  that  the  teacher  is 
sustained  by  the  confidence  and  cooperation  of  the 
parent,  he  is  a  better  and  more  hopeful  student. ' ' 

Such  a  message  coming  in  this  direct  persoual 
Tvay  must  have  great  weight  with  parents,  and 
must  help  to  create  that  spirit  of  cooperation 
which  is  essential  to  the  highest  success.* 

*For  a  superintendent's  letter  in  full  touching 
vital  matters  of  interest  to  parents  see  Appen- 
dix F. 


CHAPTER    IX 


Duties  of 
organization 
and  supervis- 
ion delegated 
to  principals. 


Supervising 
principals 
should  teach 


THE   PRINCIPAL    AS    ORGANIZER    AND    SUPERVISOR 

Some  of  the  duties  already  outlined  as  belong- 
ing to  the  superintendent  of  schools  will,  under 
some  circumstances,  naturally  fall  to  the  princi- 
pal. In  large  systems  of  schools  the  superin- 
tendent is  likely  to  delegate  to  principals  certain 
duties  both  of  organization  and  of  supervision 
which  in  smaller  systems  are  performed  by  the 
superintendent  alone.  Thus  the  details  of 
classification  and  promotion  and  of  directing  the 
work  of  teachers  in  some  cities  are  likely  to  de- 
volve upon  the  principal  who  has  to  teach  but 
a  portion  of  the  time.  Such  a  principal  may  be 
called  a  supervising  or  superintending  principal. 
Sometimes  the  supervising  principal  may  have 
charge  of  the  schools  of  a  district;  in  which  case 
much  of  his  time  may  have  to  be  given  to  super- 
intendence and  little  to  regular  teaching.  It  is 
a  question  however  whether  even  in  the  largest 
districts,  the  supervising  principal  should  not 
have  some  regular  work  as  a  teacher  to  do. 
This  statement  may  well  apply  to  city  high 
schools  as  well  as  to  elementary  schools.  The 
principal  of  highest  price  and  presumably  of 
greatest  power  as  a  teacher  ought  not  to  spend 
all  his  time  upon  the  petty  details  of  organiza- 
tion which  might  well  be  delegated  to  subordi- 
nate teachers. 

(188) 


School  Organization  and  Supervision         189 

In   case   the   principal  has  direct  charge  of  a 
room  with  no  assistant,  he  will  be  expected  to 
teach  most  of  the  time  and  have  few  supervisory 
duties  beyond  the  government  of  all  the  pupils  principals 
■of  a  building  at   recesses   and   before  and  after  with  few 
school.     Occasionally    the     duty    is     put  upon  supervisory 
such  a  principal    of   attending  to  cases    of  dis- 
cipline occurring  in  the  various   school  rooms — 
a  duty  which  should  be    assumed   not  because 
he  has  superor  physical  strength  or  better  judg- 
ment than  others  in  the  management  of  refrac- 
tory pupils  but  because  he  has  for  the  time  being 
a   position  of    greater   authority  than   that   of 
other  teachers  or  because  it  is  desirable  to  have 
some  one  near  at  hand  to  sustain  the  teacher  in 
her   decisions.     But   in   any  case  the  principal  Tiie  principal 
should  be  more  than  a  policeman  or  judge.     He  '"'■,'^'  ^'''^"  ^ 

'■  o       o  policcmau. 

should  inaugurate  and  help  to  sustam  all  agen- 
cies that  will  tend  to  encourage  a  high  profes- 
sional spirit  on  the  part  of  the  teachers,  a  cordial 
cooperation  of  parents,  and  a  fine  sense  of  loy- 
alty and  high  ideals  among  the  pupils. 

In  directing  the  conduct  of  pupils  outside  of  i>,i,Kipies  of 
the  school  room,  the  principal  should  use  the  op-  comiuct. 
portunities  presented  for  cultivating  in  the  pu- 
pils a  respect  for  one  another's  rights,  for  giving 
them  free  and  healthful  exercise,  and  for  leading 
them  into  habits  of  self  control.  It  is  hoped 
therefore  that  many  disturbing  restrictions, 
and  especially  a  spying  by  monitors,  will  not  be 
found  necessary. 

Suitable  plays  and  games  for  all  classes  of 
children  should  be  provided  for,  to  be  carried  on 


Self  control 


190    The  Principal  as  Organizer  and  Supervisor 

under  the  direction  either  of  chosen  leaders  or  of 
the  teachers.  In  these  exercises  and  in  going  in 
and  out  of  school,  every  pupil  should  be  made  to 
feel  that  he  is  to  control  himself  to  the  extent  of 
living  up  to  his  ideas  of  what  is  right.  If  he 
the  watch-  knows  that  it  is  not  right  to  cheat  or  to  abuse 
word.  another  in  a  game  or  to  play  in  the  files,  he  ought 

not  to  feel  that  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  be- 
watched  or  to  be  reminded  of  any  remissness  in 
these  respects.  If  he  does  not  know  this  or  if  he 
is  found  to  need  watching  or  reminding,  he  ought 
to  be  denied  the  privilege  of  having  his  recess  with 
others  or  of  filing  with  them. 

It  is  believed  that  if  tlie  exercises  of  the  re- 
cess are  properly  provided  for^  and  if  appeals  of 
the  right  kind  are  made,  there  will  be  very  few 
pupils  who  will  care  to  take  their  recesses  by 
themselves  or  under  special  oversight  of  a 
teacher.  They  will  be  made  to  feel  a  sense  of 
pride  in  controlling  themselves,  and  will  have  a 
feeling  of  pleasure  in  freely  entering  into  the 
games  with  others.  The  principal's  po^ver  for 
good  will  be  greatly  enhanced  if  he  enters  into 
the  spirit  of  the  games  and  has  a  personal  inter- 
est in  every  pupil.  He  should,  if  possible,  know 
each  pupil  by  name  and  make  them  all  feel  that 
he  is  their  friend,  ready  at  all  times  with  a  kind 
word  or  look.  All  this  he  certainly  can  do  if  he 
has  frequent  opportunities  of  visiting  the  rooms 
in  which  the  pupils  are  at  work  and  especially  if 
time  and  opportunity  permit  him  to  give  instruc- 
tion or  to  examine  classes  in  the  various  rooms. 

*  For  list  of  games  see  Appendix  F. 


School  Organization  and  Supervision  191 

What  has  been  said  of  the  government  of  pu. 

pils  on  the  play  ground  suggests  a  possible  duty  ^^^^  govem- 

of  the  principal  to  inaugurate  and  encourage  in  '"'^"^^^^^ 

°  encouraged. 

all  possible  ways  self  government  in  the  school 
room.  Some  principals  have  found  it  well  in 
the  middle  and  higher  grades  to  establish  a  kind 
of  pupil  government  in  which  the  forms  and 
practices  of  municipal  governments  are  imitated. 
Others  have  interested  the  teachers  in  more  di- 
rect and  simple  means  of  reaching  the  same  end. 
In  all  plans  of  self  government  the  principal, 
by  showing  a  personal  interest  in  the  work  and 
conduct  of  the  pupils,  may  be  of  invaluable  ser- 
vice to  both  teachers  and  pupils.  His  kind 
recognition  of  the  ability  or  efforts  of  pupils  to 
control  themselves  will  be  found  a  most  effective 
aid  to  teachers.  If,  for  example,  a  teacher  has 
adopted  the  device  of  putting  upon  a  ''  roll  of 
honor  "  all  pupils  who  are  never  spoken  to  for 
disorder  or  carelessness,  the  principal  by  occa- 
sionally referring  to  the  roll  may  be  of  great  as- 
sistance. 

Arrangement  of  programmes. — In  schools  hav- 
ing special  teachers  of  music,  drawing,  or  man    Programmes 
ual  training  or  in  schools  having  departmental   •'"schools 
work   by  the  regular  teachers,  there  is  needed  meutai  work 
some  one  to  adjust  the  programme  in  such  a  way 
as  to  maintain  a  proper  balance  and  to  avoid  con- 
flicts.    This  the  principal  is  in  better  position  to 
do  than  are  the  teachers  collectively  or  even  the 
superintendent.     The  time  table  will   be  deter- 
mined by  circumstances,  including  the  character 
of  the  subject  and  the  convenience  and  prefer- 


192         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


ences  of  the  teachers.  The  maximum  amount 
of  study  demanded  may  also  have  to  be  adjusted 
in  the  interests  of  all  concerned.  It  frequently 
happens  that  pupils  are  overworked  or  that  an 
undue  amount  of  time  is  given  to  a  subject  of 
study  by  reason  of  improper  requirements.  Some 
of  the  points  of  difficulty  may  be  met  by  occa- 
sional conferences  of  teachers  under  the  direction 
of  the  principal.  By  this  means  harmony  of 
effort  and  purpose  will  be  preserved  and  such  a 
spirit  of  cooperation  be  maintained  as  is  needed 
for  the  best  interests  of  the  pupils.  In  no  bet- 
ter way  can  a  proper  correlation  and  balance  of 
the  various  studies  be  effected. 

The  testing  of  text  books. — It  is  frequently 
found  advisable  for  text-books  to  be  tested  by 
actual  use  in  the  school  room.  This  the  superin- 
tendent and  principal  may  do  by  placing  the 
books  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  and  afterwards 
asking  the  opinion  of  teachers  as  to  their  practi- 
cal merits.  The  principal  has  the  added  advan- 
tage of  seeing  frequently  the  results  of  their  use 
by  various  teachers  and  thus  is  able  to  give  valu- 
able testimony  as  to  their  adaptability  to  exist- 
ing conditions.  Many  apparently  excellent 
text-books  would  doubtless  fall  by  the  way  if 
they  were  subjected  to  such  a  trial  made  under 
direction  of  a  supervising  principal. 

Co-operation  of  Parents. — Probably  the   most 

Ways  by  which  unique  and  most  powerful  influence  of  the  principal 

the  co-opera-     upon  his  schools  lies  in  his  ability  to  secure  the 

is'seciir  d^^^^  ^  interest  and  co-operation  of  the  parents.     This 

is  accomplished  (1)  by  interviews  with  parents  in 


Text-books  to 
be  tested  by 
actual  use. 


The  Principal  as  Organizer  and  Supervisor  193 

the  homes  and  in  the  school,  (2)  by  visiting  days  for 
which  parents  are  especially  invited,  (3)  by  special 
exhibitions  of  the  pupils'  work  in  each  grade, 
(4)  by  parents'  meetings  at  which  the  principal  has 
an  opportunity  to  explain  what  the  teachers  are 
attempting  to  do  and  to  suggest  ways  by  which 
parents  may  give  needed  aid,  and  (5)  by  local  edu- 
cational associations  in  which  a  healthy  interest 
in  the  schools  may  be  awakened  through  the 
frequent  discussions  of  educational  questions  by 
teachers  and  citizens. 

School    Extension. — One  effective     means    of 
awakening  the  people's  interest  in  education  is 
through  direct  instruction.     Upon  evenings  and  Evening 
Saturdays  for  at  least  a  portion  of  the  year  the  ^^^'"^^^  ^^'-^ 

lectures 

school  rooms  and  halls  should  be  opened  to  all 
beyond  school  age  for  practical  lessons  and  lec- 
tures of  various  kinds.  Naturally  the  instruc- 
tion desirable  for  persons  in  active  life  will  be 
somewhat  different  from  that  which  is  given  to 
children  This  difference  lies  mainly  in  the 
kind  of  work  attempted.  Thus  in  some  com- 
munities there  will  be  classes  in  dress-making, 
cooking,  carpentry,  mechanical  drawing,  stenog- 
raphy, type- writing,  etc,  all  with  special  refer- 
ence to  immediate  needs.  Popular  lectures,  with 
and  without  the  stereopticon  may  also  be  given 
in  this  school  extension  course.  Experience 
has  shown  that  both  class  instruction  and  lec- 
tures will  be  fully  attended  if  they  are  of  tlie 
right  kind.  * 

*  See  appendix  E  for  examples  of  active  work 
in  educational  centres. 


savings. 


194         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

School  Savings  Bank.  — Among  the  educational 
interests  not  directly  connected  with   the  pur- 
poses  of   the   school   which  the  principal   may 
A  simple  plan  have  occasion  to  look  after  is  the  School  Savings 
of  school  Bank.      In   one   form    or   another   this   object- 

lesson  and  encouragement  of  thrift  has  been 
given  in  a  large  number  of  places  both  here  and 
abroad.  The  plan  of  operation  should  be  such 
as  will  require  from  teachers  the  least  possible 
care  and  time.  If  there  is  a  local  bank  an  ar- 
rangement might  be  effected  by  which  small 
deposits  could  be  made  for  safe  keeping  through 
the  teacher  and  principal.  An  account  might 
be  taken  by  teachers  of  all  deposits  until  the 
amount  for  each  pupil  is  sufficient  for  a  bank 
book  entry.  Probably  the  simplest  and  most 
effective  plan  is  that  of  the  Stamp  Savings.  By 
this  plan  cards  are  provided  upon  which  stamps 
are  placed  corresponding  to  the  amount  deposit- 
ed.* 

Child  Study.  The  principal  of  a  building  or 
district  is  in  a  peculiarly  favorable  position  to 
make  a  study  of  and  provision  for  defective, 
backward,    and   refractory   pupils,  t      He   may 

*  This  plan  has  been  adopted  in  most  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  country,  from  which  informa- 
tion as  to  how  it  is  carried  on  may  be  obtained. 
Information  and  material  may  also  be  ob- 
tained from  J.  H.  Thiry,  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y., 
who  introduced  the  system  into  this  country. 

t  See  what  was  said  upon  Special  School  and 
Classes  and  Schools  for  Backward  Children  pp. 
138-140.     Also  Chapter  XI,  and  Appendix  E. 


The  Principal  as  Organizer  and  Supervisor    195 

also  do  much  to  encourage  and  carry  out  on 
good  lines  profitable  child  study,  in  which  a 
comparison  of  certain  features  of  the  pupils'  per- 
sonality and  work  is  made  and  recorded.  The 
purpose  of  these  observations  and  records  is 
two-fold,  first   in   leading   teachers   to  discover 

J,      ,       ■  T    J-         ±       J.T     •  -1  1  •   1       J.1  Profitable  child 

facts  m  relation  to  their  pupils  which  they  ^^^, 
should  know;  and  secondly  in  providing  useful 
information  for  subsequent  teachers.  The  rec- 
ords should  be  kept  in  permanent  form,  either 
in  books  provided  for  the  purpose  or  in  card 
catalogues.  The  facts  sought  and  noted  may 
be  such  as  relate  to  the  health,  efforts  and  at- 
tainments of  pupils  at  intervals  of  six  months 
or  a  year.  The  outlines  which  follow  will  sug- 
gest both  the  kind  and  the  form  of  records  to  be 
kept.  Most  of  the  items  of  the  first  outline  may 
be  supplied  by  the  teachers,  but  in  the  interests 
of  accuracy  the  principal  may  be  called  upon 
to    assist  in  some  of  the  measurements.  * 

The  following  blank  is  intended  for  a  card  cat- 
alogue, each  card  being  5  in  by  3  in.  The 
marks  may  be  indicated  by  letters  or  figures, 
their  interpretation  being  placed  on  the  back  of 
the  card. 

*  Other  Outlines  for  Observation  Records  are 
given  in  Chapter  XII  and  Appendix  F. 


196         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Outline  of 
observations 
for  card  cata- 
logue. 


K 


The  Principal  as  Organizer  and  Supervisor      197 

An  illustration  of  a  kind  of  child  study  most 
profitable  to  all  concerned  and  quite  easy  to 
conduct  is  shown  in  the  following  plan 
devised  and  carried  out  in  a  large  high  school.  * 

Memorandum  of  Priricipal  of  Grammar  School 
from  which  the  pupil  came. 

Name  of  pupil.  School  attendance.  Gen- 
eral health.  Temperament.  Character.  Gen- 
eral Scholarship.  What  Course  ought to  have 

chosen  ?     Ought to    be  allowed  to  take  up 

extra  work first   year  ?      Greatest    strength  ^  .^  ^^  ^j^jj^j 

and  interest.     Greatest  weakness.  Outside  inter-  study  iu  which 
ests.  (What  steady  hkes  are  shown?)  Home  con-  ^^^  co-opera- 
ditions.      (Outside    influence  in    general).      In  ^'""  ^fP'^'^'its 

.    ^  o  /  and  teachers  is 

case  of  difiiculty  in  learning  or  fault  in  behavior  secured. 
what  method  of  instruction  or  discipline  have  you 
found  most  helpful  ? 

Memorandum  of  Parent. 

1.  What  has  been general  health  during 

the  past  two  years  ? 

2.  Does have  any  trouble  with eye 

sight  ? 

3.  Does sleejj  weU  ?     How  many  hours  ? 

Does take  time  enough  to  eat  a  good  break- 
fast before  going  to  school  ? 

4.  Eoughly,  how  much  time  does spend 

in  recreation  and  exercise  ?     In  what  way  ?     Do 
you  think is  out  in  the  air  enough  ? 

5.  Do  you  think  we  teachers  require  too  much 

*  This  plan  was  arranged  and  carried  out  by 
Dr.  Fred  W.  Atkinson  when  he  was  principal  of 
the  Springfield,  Mass.,  High  School. 


198         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

of ?     Do   you   think might   do   more 

studying  just  as  well  as  not  ? 

6.  Roughly,  how  much  time  does spend 

at  home  studying  ?     Does need  to  be  urged 

to  study  or  not  ? 

7.  Does take  books  from  the  library  for 

self  ?     Roughly,  how  much  time  does 

spend  in  reading  books  (not  connected  with 
school  work)  ?  What  is  the  character  of  this 
reading  ?  Does  read  magazines  ?  News- 
papers ? 

8.  What  steady  likes  and  dislikes  has in 

school  and  out  ?     What  study,  if  any,  does 

complain  of  as  hardest  ? 

9.  State  any  other  things  (concerning  temper- 
ament, character,  etc.)  which  we  ought  to  know 
to  be  of   greatest   help  and  encouragement   to 

Pupirs  Memorandum 

1.  What  books  have  you  read  since ? 

2.  Which  of  these  books  do  you  especially  Uke 
and  why  ? 

3.  What  character  in  these  books  do  you 
especially  like  and  why  ? 

4.  What  kind  of  literature  do  you  prefer,  flc  - 
tion,  history,  biography,  books  of  travel,  essays, 
poetry,  etc.  ? 

5.  Who  is  your  favorite  author  ? 

6.  What  newspaper  (daily  or  weekly)  do  you 
habitually  read  ? 

7.  What  magazines  do  you  read,  and  which 
do  you  like  best '? 


The  Principal  as  Organizer  and  Supervisor    199 

8.  Do  you  draw  books  from  the  City  Library 
— if  so,  about  how  many  each  month  ? 

High  School  Teacher^ s  Memorandum 

Name.  Date  of  beginning  of  this  study. 
Date  and  place  of  birth.  Height.  Weight. 
Sight.  Hearing.  Health.  Temperament. 
Character.  General  Scholarship  (chief  mental 
characteristics.  Character  of  this  pupil's  men- 
tal development).  Greatest  strength  (interest). 
Greatest  weakness  (difficulty).  Application 
(studious?  Stimulus  needed,  etc.)  Attention. 
Ability  to  express  (a)  orally  {b)  in  writing. 
Ability  to  think  (influence  and  reasoning). 
Ability  to  memorize.  Imagination.  Attend- 
ance (a)  regularity  {h)  punctuahty  (c)  dismissals. 
Interests  (a)  in  school  (6)  out  of  school.  Con- 
trolling motives  (why  does  this  public  attend 
school,  etc.)  General  deportment  (most  success- 
ful treatment,  etc.)     Additional  data. 

Such  records  of  the  physical  and  mental  char- 
acteristics of  pupils  must  be  regarded  as  a  valu-     "y^^.'^a  >ons 

^    ^  ®  not  injurious 

able  aid  to  teachers  of  all  grades  of  schools,  to  children. 
They  are  moreover  entirely  within  the  power  of 
teachers  to  make,  with  not  the  slightest  danger 
of  injuring  the  child,  as  some  seem  to  fear.  A 
simple  observation  and  record  of  a  child's  inter- 
ests, inclinations  and  powers  ought  not  to  be 
attended  by  a  harmful  "  prying  into  his  soul  "  , 
any  more  than  a  recitation  in  geograpby  or  his- 
tory. Of  more  doubtful  value  and  policy  are 
the  investigations  of  child  study  which  seem  to 
be  made  in  the  interests  of  science.  If  such  in- 
vestigations are  ever  allowed,  they   should  be 


20i)         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

conducted  only  by  trained  psychologists  and  then 
only   with  the  greatest  care. 

Supervision  by 

principals  Supervision. — What  has  been  said  elsewhere 

closer  than  by  respecting  the  duties  of  supervision  by  superin- 
superinten-  tendents  will  apply  equally  to  the  supervisory 
duties  of  principals.  The  difference  between 
supervision  performed  by  a  superintendent  and 
supervision  performed  by  a  principal  is  more  a 
difference  of  degree  than  of  kind.  The  princi- 
pal is  supposed  to*have  a  more  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  pupils  than  the  superinten- 
dent, and  can  more  frequently  visit  the  schools 
for  all  the  purposes  of  supervision — viz. — inspec- 
tion, examination,  and  teaching.  He  may  be 
able  therefore  to  guide  the  work  of  teachers 
more  closely  than  the  superintendent  can. 

Care  should  be  taken  however  that  there  be 
not  too  much  supervision.  If  the  system  of 
schools  is  not  large  and  the  superintendent  is  able 
to  visit  the  schools  frequently,  there  should  be 
little  supervision  of  any  other  kind.  In  any 
case  the  supervision  should  not  be  in  kind  or 
amount  such  as  will  be  burdensome  to  conscien- 
tious teachers.  For  good  teachers  the  super- 
vision will  be  largely  in  the  nature  of  support ; 
for  poor  ones  it  will  be  suggestive  and  helpfully 
directive.  If  both  supervisor  and  teacher  have 
a  true  professional  spirit,  that  is,  if  they  are  in 
the  effort  to  reach  the  pupils  in  the  best  way  and 
seek  to  be  guided  by  true  educational  principles, 
there  need  be  no  friction  between  them.  If 
added  to  the  conditions  just  named  there  is  in 
both  the  sympathy  and  open  heartedness  which 


The  Principal  as  Organizer  and  Supervisor    201 

always  exist  among  those  who  are  working  to- 
gether in  a  great  cause,  not  only  will  there  be 
no  friction  but  there  will  oe  a  happy  and  en- 
thusiastic co-operation  in  all  that  is  done.  r»-     * 

^  Direct  service 

In  this  brief  statement  of  the  duties  of  organ-  the  watch- 
ization  and  supervision  which  properly  fall  to  a  ^^'o^*^- 
principal,  no  allusion  is  made  to  the  means  em- 
ployed for  securing  the  right  kind  of  order  in 
the  lines  and  at  recesses,  nor  to  his  function  as 
arbiter  in  severe  cases  of  discipline  for  recalci- 
trant pupils.  Nothing  has  been  said  either  of  the 
multitudinous  clerical  duties  which  frequentlyare 
put  upon  principals  of  grammar  schools  in  large 
cities.  In  all  these  duties  direct  service  should  be 
the  watchword.  No  rule  should  be  made,  no  re- 
port or  record  called  for,  no  statisticsrequired  that 
have  not  a  direct  purpose  of  helping  to  educate 
the  children.  Measured  by  this  standard  rules  of 
discipline  and  clerical  work  will  be  much  more 
limited  than  they  are  in  many  city  schools.* 

A  principal  must  of  course  faithfully  perform 
the  clerical  and  other  duties  of  administration 
that  are  required  of  him  by  the  school  board  or 
superintendent ;  but  if  such  duties  interfere  with 
his  highest  efficiency  as  a  principal  it  is  his  duty 
to  protest  against  them  in  the  hope  that  he  may 
give  his  time  only  to  such  means  of  supervision 
and  teaching  as  will  most  directly  lead  to  the 
great  ends  for  which  the  schools  exist. 

*  In  the  New  York  School  Journal  of  Oct.  o, 
1901,  there  is  given  a  list  of  157  separate  fmd 
distinct  kinds  of  clerical  work  performed  by 
principals  of  the  city  grammar  schools. 


CHAPTER  X 


Duties  of 
organizations 
devolving 
upon  the 
teacher. 


Porms  of  or- 
;ganization  not 
to  be  imposed 
Crom   without. 


THE   TEACHER   AS   ORGANIZER 

While  the  organization  of  the  schools  and 
classes  belongs  mainly  to  the  superintendent 
and  principal,  there  are  features  of  organization 
which  must  be  left  wholly  or  in  part  to  the 
teacher,  such  as  the  making  of  the  daily  pro- 
gramme, the  division  of  the  class  or  classes  into 
sections  whenever  such  division  seems  desirable, 
the  placing  of  pupils  in  classes,  and  the  assign- 
ment of  work  in  such  a  way  as  to  protect  the 
rights  of  all,  the  formation  of  plans  of  govern- 
ment by  which  the  largest  measure  of  self  con- 
trol on  the  part  of  pupils  is  assured,  and  in 
general  the  adoption  of  means  by  which  the 
purposes  of  the  school  may  be  most  effectively 
reached. 

All  these  matters  involve  plans  of  organiza- 
tion which  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
welfare  of  the  school.  They  are  no  less  matters 
of  organization  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they 
are  closely  connected  with  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion and  training.  Indeed  they  belong  mainly  to 
the  teacher  because  they  are  so  closely  connected 
with  instruction  and  training.  Those  schools  in 
which  the  daily  programme,  the  division  of 
classes,  the  assignment  of  work,  rules  of  gov- 
ernment and  kindred  matters  of  organization 
are   imposed    from    without    are  likely    to   be 

(202) 


The   Teacher  as   Organizer  203 

mechanical  and  superficial,  devoid  of  that  elas- 
ticity and  originality  which  are  marks  of  a  good 
school. 

The  daily  programme. — In  making  the  daily  xhe  daily  pro- 
programme  the  teacher  should  take  into  account  gramme  to  be 
the  relative  time  needed  for  the  various  subjects  ^^^'^Pt'^'^  to  cir- 
as  well  as  the  special  needs  of  classes  and  indi-  ^"™*  ^^^^^' 
viduals.     In  respect  to  time  limits  for  the  var- 
ious subjects  reference  must  be  had  to  the  re- 
quirements  of   the   course  of   study  * ,  but  the 
adaptation  of  the  programme   to  actual  condi- 
tions must  be  left  largely  to  the  teacher.     There 
are  classes  of  pupils  also  who  for  various  reasons 
are  deficient  in  a  certain  subject  and  need  some- 
what more  time  given  to   it  than  would  ordi- 
narily be  given.     For  these  and  other  reasons  the 
programme  may  have  to  be  changed  from  time 
to  time.     A  fixed  programme  for  all  the  schools 
is  therefore  not  to  be  expected  or  desired. 

Effort   should   be  made   to  allow   the  pupils 
opportunity  for  one  or    two  hours  daily  of  in- 
dependent study.      There  are  many  schools  at 
home   and   abroad   whose   programmes  do  not  giamme  to 
permit  the  pupils  to  have  more  than  three  min-  allow  time  for 
utes  at   a   time  of   uninterrupted   study.     The  '"•i<'P''"^'ent 
pupils  are  either  spending  their  time  in  recita- 
tion or  else   they   are   constantly   being  inter- 
rupted in  a  so-called  study  hour  by  pupils  asking 
questions  from  their  seats  about  their  lessons  or 
by  teachers  making  explanation  of  some  diffi- 
cult point  which  all  the  pupils  desire  to  hear. 

*  For   plans '  based   upon   certain   theories  of 
time  limits  see  pp.  77-85. 


204 


School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Here  perhaps  is  the  weakest  point  of  our  graded 
school  system — the  failure  to  lead  the  pupils 
into  habits  of  concentration  in  study  or  inty 
habits  of  independent  work. 

This  is  the  danger  of  our  graded  system  of 
Class  to  be  schools,  but  happily  it  is  a  danger  which  can  in 
divided  in  some  a  large  degree  be  avoided.     Two  or  three  short 


subjects. 


Advantage  of 
short  intervals 
between  class. 


periods  of  study  may  be  allowed  in  the  pro 
gramme  for  all  the  pupils  to  study  and  for  in- 
dividual pupils  to  go  to  the  teacher  for  assistance, 
always  in  a  way  so  as  not  to  attract  attention. 
In  graded  schools  two  or  three  study  periods  of 
twenty- five  or  thirty  minutes  each  may  be 
secured  by  dividing  the  class  iato  two  sections, 
one  section  reciting  while  the  other  is  studying. 
In  such  studies  as  writing,  drawing,  language, 
and  elementary  science  all  the  pupils  of  a  class 
may  recite  together,  but  in  other  subjects  the 
division  of  a  class  may  be  made  with  advantage 
on  account  of  more  fully  reaching  the  needs  of 
individual  pupils,  besides  affording  greater 
opportunity  for  study.  In  the  lower  grades  the 
school  or  class  may  be  divided  into  three  or 
four  sections,  the  pupils  at  the  seats  being  given 
written  and  other  worn  of  various  kinds. 

In  those  graded  schools  whose  plan  of  classifi- 
cation embodies  the  idea  of  short  intervals  be- 
tween classes  and  frequent  promotions  there  will 
of  course  be  no  difficulty  in  giving  pupils  ample 
opportunity  for  study.  *  Two  or  more  classes 
in  a  room  will  be  heard  separately  in  all  sequen- 
tial subjects  such  as  arithmetic,  grammar,  and 

*  See  pages  126-133. 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  205 

elementary  reading,  thus  giving  pupils  at  least  a 

third  of  the  school  time  to  silent  reading  or  study. 

In  ungraded  schools  care  should  be  taken  lest 

the  number  of  classes  in  the  various  subjects  be 

L  J.J.1  i^     3-         ^  -ii?!      Classification 

too  great,  thus  anordmg  lesson  periods  of  only  j^^  uncrraded 
five  or  eight  minutes  each.  In  some  subjects  hke  schools. 
arithmetic  and  reading  it  will  be  advisable  to 
have  several  grades,  possibly  four  or  five,  but  in 
other  subjects  like  geography  and  language  two 
or  three  grades  of  work  are  quite  sufficient.  If 
possible  the  number  of  recitations  daily  should 
be  kept  below  twenty,  and  there  should  be  no 
recitation  period  of  less  than  ten  minutes  in  du- 
ration, however  few  the  pupils  reciting  may  be. 

The  following  suggestions  respecting  the  class- 
ification of  ungraded  schools  made  by  the  author 
several  years  ago  may  be  found  helpful. 

"  The  classification  of  ungraded  schools  will 
■depend  upon  circumstances.  If  there  are  two 
teachers  (as  there  should  be  in  schools  of  more  Classification 
than  twenty-five  pupils)  more  minute  classifica-  ^*  ungraded 
tions  may  be  made  than  if  there  is  only  one.  In 
some  ungraded  schools  the  older  pupils  predomi- 
nate; in  others  the  younger.  In  some  places  the 
older  pupils  are  taken  from  the  ungraded  district 
schools  and  placed  in  a  central  grammar  or  high 
school;  in  other  places  no  higher  school  of  any 
kind  supplements  the  work  of  the  ungraded 
school.  No  exact  rule,  therefore,  for  classifying 
ungraded  schools  can  be  laid  down. 

"But  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  no  close  ^'^^''T  P'>pii  to 
classification  should  be  attempted  in  ungraded  J,',p\viii('h  )..•  is 
schools,  but  that  every  pupil  should  recite  in  the  best  iiitcd. 


206  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

class  for  which  he  is  best  fitted,  whatever  the 
subject  may  be.  For  instance,  a  pupil  may  be  in 
the  second  class  in  arithmetic  and  in  the  first  in 
reading  or  vice  versa. 

"  Again,  there  should  be  as  few  classes  as  possi- 
ble consistent  with  the  good  of  all.  The  false- 
pride  of  pupils  and  the  ignorance  of  parents  as. 
to  Avhat  is  best  for  their  children  should  not 
prevent  the  teacher  from  doing  his  duty  in  this, 
regard. .  Too  often  the  pupil  and  parent  alike 
measure  progress  in  education  by  the  number  of 
pages  of  the  book  that  are  'gone  over'.  And 
too  often,  also,  there  is  some  disgrace  attached 
to  the  pupil  who  is  put  into  another  class. 

"All  these  hindrances  to  good  classification 

p]fm  of  datsifi-  ^^^^^^  t)e  met  and  overcome  in  one  way  or  another. 

cation.  The  parents  may  be  made  to  see  that  the  older 

pupils  should  recite  only  two  or  three  times  a 
week  in  some  studies  and  that  there  may  be  a 
less  minute  classification  in  some  studies  than  in 
others.  In  geography,  for  example,  they  may 
see  that  a  knowledge  of  one  country  does  not  de- 
pend upon  a  knowledge  of  another,  and  that  drill 
in  one  part  of  the  spelling  book  may  be  as  useful 
as  drill  in  another  part.  The  following  classifi- 
cation might  be  made  in  many  ungraded  schools, 
consisting  of  pupils  from  five  to  fifteen  years  of 
age :  four  classes  in  reading,  including  one  class 
in  the  reading  of  history ;  five  classes  in  arithme- 
tic; two  classes  in  geography,  besides  the  class 
of  younger  pupils  who  are  reciting  orally  lessons 
in  home  geography;  four  classes  in  spelling,  two 
of  which  may  be  heard  at  the  same  time ;  one 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  207 

class  in  physiology, — the  rest  to  be  heard  orally ; 
one  class  in  history ;  one  class  in  English  gram- 
mar; and  one  in  language.  The  singing,  draw- 
ing and  observation  lessons  may  be  taught  as 
general  exercises  to  all  the  pupils  at  once. 

"It  may  not  be  well  for  a  new  teacher  to  make 
such  a  classification  at  once,  nor  carry  out  all  at 
once  the  plan  of  hearing  the  older  pupils  recite  on 
alternate  days.  It  might  be  better  for  him  to 
adopt  for  a  time  the  classification  which  he  fiods, 
in  the  hope  that  he  may  gradually  change  it  for 
the  better. ' '  * 

How  tu  meet  the  needs  of  iiuli vidua]  pupils. —  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^j. 
A  common  defect,  perhaps  to  some  extent  in-  present  system 
evitable  under  our  present  system,  is  the  failure  ^^  gi^aded 
of  teachers  to  meet  the  individual  needs  of  pu- 
pils. It  is  fouDd  to  be  the  common  tendency  of 
young  and  inexperienced  teachers,  and  some- 
times the  tendency  of  teachers  not  young  or  in- 
experienced, to  mechanize  the  work  of  instruction 
and  training,— to  make  all  the  pupils  of  a  class 
do  the  same  thing  in  the  same  way  and  fre- 
quently at  the  same  time.  This  tendency  is 
shown  in  the  concert  exercises,  in  the  models  for 
parsing  and  for  arithmetical  analysis  or  explana- 
tions, in  uniform  requirements  for  all,  in  exami- 
nation for  promotion  or  rank  and  in  the  custom 
of  requiring  pupils  to  "makeup"  their  work 
after  school  or  at  recess,  — unmindful  of  whether 
that  work  is  important  or  not  as  a  basis  of  sub- 
sequent study,  and  sometimes  unmindful  of  the 

*  Courses  of  Studies  and  Methods  of  Teaching 
pp  309-311 


208  ScJ\ool  Organization  and  Supervision 

health  of  the  pupils.  So  common  are  these  prac- 
tices that  there  may  be  a  measure  of  truth  in 
the  charge  so  frequently  made  against  the  public 
schools, — that  of  turning  out  the  pupils  after 
the  same  model. 

One  remedy  proposed  is  to  abolish  the  graded 
Purely individ-  and  class  system  and  to  follow  the  individual 
uai  teaching,  niethod  exclusively,  by  v^hich  each  pupil  is  to  re- 
cite as  much  as  he  has  learned  while  the  others 
are  studying.  The  encouragment  of  memoriter 
work  which  such  a  plan  involves,  the  absence  of 
that  stimulation  which  is  occasioned  in  class  work 
by  the  friction  of  mind  upon  mind,  and  the  loss 
of  time  involved  in  the  necessary  teaching  of  new 
and  difficult  topics,  all  condemn  this  means  of 
effecting  the  desired  reform. 

To  retain  all  the  benefits  of  the  graded  and 
Number  of  class  system,  and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  the 
pupils  to  a  tea-  dangers  which  are  incident  to  it,  is  a  difficult  if 

smaii^'''^"^*^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^  impossible  task ;  and  yet  much  may  be 
done  in  several  ways  to  meet  the  difficulty.  The 
first  way  which  suggests  itself  is  the  reduction 
of  the  number  of  pupils  to  a  teacher  to  the  point 
at  which  each  pupil  may  receive  such  individual 
attention  from  the  teacher  as  he  needs.  Twenty - 
five  or  at  most  thirty -five  pupils  ought  to  be 
the  maximum  number  for  each  teacher  to  have, 
in  a  graded  school,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  school  shall  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sec- 
tions. In  some  subjects  of  the  primary  school 
as  in  reading  and  number  there  may  be  several 
divisions  or  groups  of  six  to  ten  pupils  each. 
Instruction  in  drawing,   language,  and   nature 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  209 

study  in  all  grades  may  be  given  to  the  school  as 
a  whole. 

The  needs  of  individual  pupils  may  be  further  ^^sis  for  indi- 
met  by  putting  them  in  grades  or  classes  where  ^'f^^^^  '^"'^ 

,,  ^    1      ji       -,       ,        -,  ,  Class    promo- 

they  can  work  to  the  best  advantage.  Careful  tious. 
attention  should  be  given  to  both  individual  and 
class  promotions, — the  only  consideration  being 
the  welfare  of  each  pu[)il.  On  every  day  of 
school  the  teacher  should  be  ready  to  answer  the 
question  whether  every  jvjpil  is  placed  where  he 
can  do  the  most  for  himself.  The  health,  future 
jDlans,  habits,  and  home  surrouDdings  of  the 
pupils,  all  may  help  to  determine  the  classes  in 
which  they  are  to  be  placed  and  the  subjects 
they  are  to  take.  So  much  at  least  of  child  study 
should  be  pursued  by  the  teacher  as  to  make  him 
acquainted  with  the  above  named  conditions  of 
each  pupil. 

Occasionally  there  may  be  a  pupil  who  by  a 
little  extra  work  in  one  of  the  sequential  studies 
like  reading  in  the  lower  grades  or  arithmetic  in 
the  higher,  may  be  transferred  on  trial  to  a 
higher  grade  with  a  view  of  doing  full  work 
later. 

The  subject  of  class  promotions  has  been  dis- 
cussed in  another  place  *  and  need  not  be  con- 
sidered here  further  than  to  say  that  the  standard 
of  judgment  above  stated  as  requisite  for  individ- 
ual promotioiis  should  be  established  for  class 
promotions. 

The  adaptation  of  work  to  individual  pupils  Optional  nn.l 
may  be   still  further   made  by  indicating  in  the  ^"""^'^  ''*""  '^''''" 

*  See  pp.  124-126. 


210         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

course  of  studies  the  essential  or  important 
matter  which  all  the  pupils  shall  acquire,  and 
the  non-essential  parts  of  the  course  which  may 
be  learned  with  greater  or  less  thoroughness,  de- 
pending upon  the  ability  of  the  pupils.  The 
matter  of  optional  studies  also  has  an  important 
bearing  upon  this  subject.  It  may  be  found 
advisable  to  bring  down  to  the  upper  grades  of 
the  grammar  school,  in  a  limited  way,  the 
elective  system  which  has  been  adopted  gener- 
ally in  our  best  high  schools.  When  a  number 
of  pupils  are  clearly  benefited  by  the  pursuit  of 
any  subject  of  study  it  is  only  fair  that  they 
shall  have  the  privilege  of  taking  it.  It  should 
be  possible  also  to  permit  a  pupil  to  drop  one 
or  more  studies,  when  it  is  clearly  seen  by  the 
superintendent  and  teacher  that  such  omission 
of  studies  will  be  for  his  best  interests. 
r,      .    .,  Reference  has  been  made  thus  far  to   those 

Care  in  the  as- 
signment of       means  of  adaptation  which  are  chiefly  adminis- 

tasks  trative  in  character  and  which  are  used  jointly 

by  the  superintendent  and  teacher.  There  re- 
mains to  be  mentioned  a  way  of  meeting  the 
needs  of  individual  pupils  which  belongs  to  the 
teacher  alone;  and  that  is,  a  plan  of  tasks  and 
recitations  by  which  all  pupils  shall  be  permitted 
to  do  the  most  that  they  are  capable  of  doing. 
Instead  of  giving  uniform  tasks,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  in  which  the  pupils  are  expected  to  do 
the  same  work  or  acquire  the  same  amount, 
the  teacher  should  adapt  the  tasks  to  the 
varied  capacities  and  powers  of  the  pupils, 
the  essential  or  important  parts  of  a  given  sub- 


Extra  work  in 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  211 

ject  or  topic  to  be  learned  by  all,  and  other  parts 
to  be  studied  by  such  pupils  only  as  have  the 
necessary  time  and  power  to  learn  them.  Some 
subjects,  like  history,  geography,  and  language, 
lend  themselves  readily  to  such  treatment ;  while 
others,  like  mathematics  and  science,  may  re- 
quire care  and  skill  to  accomplish  the  desired  end 
of  providing  work  of  such  kind  and  amount  as 
will  Stimulate  every  pupil  to  do  his  best. 

connection 

The  recitation  also  should  be  conducted  with  with  regular 
the  same  end  in  view.  Of  course,  under  the  best  lessons 
circumstances  and  with  the  utmost  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  there  will  be  some  waiting 
by  the  best  and  brightest  pupils  for  those  who 
are  slower;  and  yet,  with  care,  the  recitation 
may  be  conducted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
it  profitable  for  all  to  attend  and  take  active  part. 

For  example,  in  all  information  studies  in 
which  lessons  are  assigned  and  recited  by  topics, 
all  the  pupils  may  be  held  responsible  for  what 
is  in  the  regular  text-book,  while  a  few  will 
be  expected  to  consult  reference  books  or  other 
text- books  found  in  the  school  or  public  library. 
The  fact  that  this  extra  work  is  entirely  optional 
will  be  found  to  be  no  bar  to  effort  on  the  i)art 
of  the  brighter  pupils,  who  will  be  glad  of  the 
opportunity  to  get  and  to  give  this  sui)plemen- 
tary  information. 

In  connection  with  the  reading  and  literature 
work  there  will  be  abundant  opportunities  for 
the  encouragement  of  extra  reading  by  recom- 
mending books  to  be  taken  from  the  public 
library,  or  by  lending  books  from  the  school  li- 


212  School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Special  topics 
for  extra 
work. 


An  assistant 
for  aiding  indi- 
vidual pupils. 


brary.  In  these  days  of  the  pubHcation  of  the 
best  books  in  cheap  form  there  is  httle  excuse 
for  the  absence  from  the  school  h brary  of  an 
abundance  of  good  hterature.  In  mathematics 
and  science  the  simpler  application  of  principles 
should  be  given  to  all,  and  the  more  difQcult  ones 
to  those  only  who  are  able  to  take  the  advanced 
work. 

In  addition  to  the  daily  supplementary  work  in 
the  various  studies  for  the  brighter  and  quicker 
pupils,  there  may  be  given  them  occasionally 
special  subjects  to  report  upon,  either  orally  or 
in  written  form.  This  is  done  with  success  in 
the  college,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why  it 
may  not  be  profitably  done  in  high  and  gram- 
mar schools.  In  history,  geography,  science,  and 
hterature  subjects  are  constantly  arising  upon 
which  much  of  an  interesting  nature  may  be 
obtained  and  given  in  addition  to  what  is  found 
the   regular   text-book.     In   addition    to   an 


in 


awakened  interest  on  the  part  of  all,  there  will  be 
gained  in  the  giving  of  special  topics  much  good 
practice  in  language  and  in  the  use  of  reference 
books. 

In  some  schools  an  assistant  teacher  is  em- 
ployed whose  only  duty  is  to  go  about  the  class 
or  school  assisting  pupils  who  need  assistance. 
This  is  an  expensive  plan  and  unless  the  teacher 
is  especially  judicious  in  her  treatment  of  pupils 
who  seek  assistance  it  is  likely  to  discourage 
proper  independence  on  the  part  of  some  pupils. 
A  better  plan  is  for  one  teacher  to  have  a  small 
number  of  pupils  and  to  provide  times  in  the 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  213 

daily  programme  in  which  needed  assistance  can 
be  given  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.  Better 
than  having  an  assistant  in  a  room  would  be  an 
assistant  in  a  building  to  whom  backward  pupils 
or  pupils  who  are  trying  to  work  into  a  higher 
class  might  be  sent  for  assistance  in  certain  sub- 
jects. * 

The  feasibility  and  use  of  plans  for  meeting 
the  needs  of  individual  pupils  are  not  confined  to  piexibiiitj-  of 
the  graded  schools.  In  rural  or  so-called  un-  classification  in 
'graded  schools  the  opportunity  to  carry  out  such  ™^*^  schools. 
plans  is  even  greater,  provided  the  folly  is  not 
committed  of  forcing  the  graded  system  of  class- 
ification upon  them;  and  provided  also  the 
schools  consist,  as  they  should,  of  a  small  num- 
ber of  pupils,  — never  over  twenty-five  to  a 
teacher.  Here  pupils  should  be  assigned  in  any 
subject  to  the  class  in  which  they  can  do  the 
most  for  themselves, — to  the  third  class  in  read- 
ing it  may  be,  and  the  first  class  in  arithmetic, 
or,  if  necessary  or  best,  to  two  classes  in  reading 
and  to  no  class  in  geography.  The  chief  value 
of  the  rural  or  mixed  school  lies  in  its  elasticity 
of  organization,  and  this  should  be  preserved  in 
the  interests  of  individual  pupils.  What  was 
said  above  of  the  assignment  and  recitation  of 
lessons  and  of  the  giving  of  special  topics  in 
graded  schools  will  apply  equally  to  the  un- 
graded schools;  with  the  added  argument  that 
in  the  latter  schools  there  is,  as  a  rule,  more  time 
for    independent    study    than    in    the    former. 

*  For  plans  of  special  classes  see  p.  139  and  Ap- 
pendix E. 


214         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

School  goveriimeiit. — lu  a  work  of  this  kind 
Self  control  obviouslv  Only  such  parts  of  the  subject  of  school 
government  should  be  treated  as  relate  to  orga- 
nization. Is  there  any  organized  plan  of  pro- 
ceeding which  will  aid  teachers  to  secure  the 
chief  end  of  school  government,  viz. — self 
control  ?  Much  has  been  said  of  the  possibilities 
for  good,  especially  in  the  direction  of  self 
government,  in  the  adoption  of  some 
plan  by  which  the  pupils  themselves  will 
have  a  large  share  in  respect  to  both 
making  the  rules  of  conduct  and  carrying  them 
out. 

The  form  of  self-government  about  which  most 
is  reported  is  that  which  is  secured  in  imitation 
The'' school  of  existing  forms  of  civil  government.  Perhaps 
ffovernmmit  ^^^  so-cahed  "  school  city "  is  the  most  ex- 
tensively used  means  of  pupil  government. 
In  this  plan  the  school  is  regarded  as  a  separate 
municipality  having  most  of  the  officers  usually 
serving  in  cities,  including  mayor,  city  clerk, 
city  treasurer,  city  attorney,  a  board  of  aldermen, 
jndges,  policemen,  etc.  The  officers  are  nomi- 
nated and  elected  in  much  the  same  way  as 
is  customary  in  cities  and  the  method  of  admin- 
istrating justice  to  offenders  is  in  the  main  simi- 
lar to  the  method  employed  in  real  life.  The  ad- 
vantages claimed  by  many  who  have  tried  this 
plan  are  (I)  the  awakening  of  a  strong  civic  sense 
through  a  clear  knowledge  of  municipal  govern- 
ment and  actual  practice  in  it;  (2)  the  mainten- 
ance of  order,  which  enables  the  pupils  to  per- 
form their  work  well ;  (3)  the  "  training  in  cooper- 


governmeut. 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  215 

ation  and  kindness  and  emulation  to  serve  the 
general  good." 

Another  and  less  tried  plan  is  the  "  Citizen  and  ,^,    .,  .,. 

'-  The     citizeu 

Tribune  "  plan  by  which  the  pupils  elect  officers  and  tribune" 
from  their  number  whose  duty  is  to  look  after  plan- 
the  conduct  of  all   the   pupils.      The   claim   is 
made   that  the  teacher  is  relieved  of  much  dis- 
agreeable   "disciplining"   of  unruly  pupils  and 
that  the    pupils  develop  a  power  of  self-control.  * 

A  full  account  of  the  "  School  City  "  plan  to- 
gether with  opinions  of  those  who  have  tried 
it,  may  be  found  in  ' '  The  Gill  System  of  Moral 
and  Civic  Training ' '  issued  by  the  Patriotic 
League,  New  Paltz,  N.  Y.  For  objection  to  it  by 
Dr.  Wm.  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education, 
see  The  School  Bulletin,  March,  1906. 

Still  another  and  simpler  plan  of  self-govern- 
ment is  that  plan  by  which  pupils  sign  an  agree- 
ment to  obey  certain  well  defined  rules  of  con- 
duct, made  by  the  pupils  themselves.  The  plan 
includes  the  election  of  a  committee  who  have 
supervision  of  the  order  everywhere  except 
when  the  teacher  has  charge  of  a  room.  The 
results  claimed  are  (1)  a  happy  spirit  among  the 
pupils,  and  a  cordially  pleasant  relation  between  The  co-opom 
teachers  and  pupils;  (2)  excellent  order;  (3)  a 
good  moral  tone ;  (4)  relief  of  care  to  the  teacher. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  that  order  in  school  is 
best  which  is  secured  with  few  rules  and  with 
little  dependence  upon  an  exercise  of  external 

*  The  plan  is  fully  outlined  in  a  booklet  writ- 
ten by  John  T.  Ray,  Principal  of  the  John  Crerar 
School,  Chicago. 


216         School  Organization  and  Sii2')ervision 


Little  organ- 
ized effort 
needed  to  se- 
cure the  best 
order. 


Separation  of 
pupils  on  lines 
of  honor  and 
self  control. 


•'Roll  of 
honor." 


The  probation 
list. 


authority,  and  that  that  school  is  accomplishing 
ranch  in  character  building  whose  pupils  habit- 
ually recognize  their  obligation  to  respect  the 
rights  and  feelings  of  others  and  to  live  to  the 
truth  as  they  see  it.  It  is  a  question  how  much 
of  organized  effort  is  needed  on  the  part  of 
teachers  to  bring  up  a  school  to  this  condition. 
Doubtless  it  is  accomplished  by  many  teachers 
with  no  conscious  effort,  or  if  there  is  effort  it  is 
exerted  without  much  machinery  of  rules,  re- 
wards and  punishments.  With  others  some 
devices  may  be  found  useful  as  an  encourage- 
ment to  all  concerned. 

One  such  device  which  has  been  used  effect- 
ively in  some  schools  is  that  of  the  teacher  sep- 
arating his  pupils  into  grades  or  hsts  on  the  basis 
of  self-control.  First  is  the  "  roll  of  honor  ", 
consisting  of  all  whose  ideas  of  justice  and  honor 
are  high  and  who  are  willing  and  able  to  live  up 
to  their  ideas  of  what  is  right.  The  members  of 
this  list  may  be  given  special  privileges,  such  for 
example,  as  being  allowed  full  fredom  to  leave 
the  seat  or  room  at  any  time.  No  charge 
of  unfairness  or  partiality  could  be  made 
for  the  bestowal  of  such  priviliges  by  pupils  not 
upon  the  roll  of  honor;  for  the  priviliges  are 
clearly  seen  to  be  a  natural  result  and  not  an  ar- 
bitrary mark  of  favor — and  they  are  freely 
offered  to  all  who  deserve  them. 

The  list  below  that  of  the  "  roll  of  honor '^ 
consists  of  those  whose  ideas  of  right  are 
fairly  good  and  clear  but  whose  powers  of  self- 
direction  and     control   are   limited.     They   are 


TJie  Teacher  as  Organizer  217 

among  that  large  class  of  children  who  have  been 
so  long  under  a  faulty  method  of  oversight  and 
direction,  that  self-dependence  in  matters  of  con- 
duct is  well  nigh  unknown  to  them.  A  major- 
ity of  children  seem  to  be  victims  either  of  a  con- 
dition in  which  there  has  been  no  curb  to  their 
impulses  and  wishes,  or  of  a  method  of  constant 
reminders  and  checks  by  which  an  exercise  of 
independence  has  been  denied  them.  All  that 
these  children  need  is  practice,  first  in  choosing 
for  themselves  the  better  of  two  courses  of  ac- 
tion, and  secondly  in  living  up  to  their  choice. 
All  that  is  required  of  the  pupils  of  the  second 
list  is  a  willingness  to  try  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves. 

It  is  essentially  a  proving  period  for  the  pupils 
— a  time  of  attempting  to  prove  their  strength, 
and  therefore  the  pupils  of  this  list  may  properly 
be  called  Probationers  or  members  of  the  Proba- 
tion list.  If  properly  approached  most  of  the  pu- 
pils of  any  school  are  ready  to  be  placed  in  one  or 
the  other  of  the  lists  named.  The  probationer  will 
necessarily  be  treated  somewhat  differently  from 
the  honor  pupil, — but  both  will  receive  the  confi- 
dence and  assistance  of  the  teacher.  There  may 
be  occasional  slips  with  members  of  both  lists, 
but  the  only  question  is  in  the  one  case  complete 
ability,  and  in  the  other  effort  and  sincerity  of 
purpose. 

But  there  may  be  a  small  number  of  pupils,   '^''^  "'\^''''' 
probably  never  more  than  five  per  cent  of  the     *' ' 
whole  number,  who  are  not  willing  even  to  try 
to  take  care  of  themselves.     These  pupils  delib- 


218         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

erately  make  a  bid  for  the  kind  of  control  which 
some  teachers  seem  to  be  only  too  willing  to 
accord  to  the  whole — the  spying  out  of  disorderly 
acts  and  the  correcting  of  them.  Of  course 
these  pupils  cannot  be  treated  as  the  pupils  of 
either  of  the  other  two  classes  are  treated.  The 
attitude  that  the  members  of  this  third  list  as- 
sume demands  that  there  be  over  them  a  con- 
stant watching — lest  some  rule  of  order  be 
violated.  For  the  other  pupils  there  are  no 
rules  but  one  and  there  is  no  special  oversight. 
But  for  these  pupils  there  are  as  many  rules  as 
they  demand  and  there  is  no  time  during  which 
they  are  out  of  sight  of  a  teacher.  There  may 
be  some  difficulty  in  naming  this  list  of  pupils. 
The  term  Oversight  list  has  the  advantage  of 
being  a  reminder  of  one  of  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  it. 

In  extreme  cases  the  pupils  of  the  third  list 
may  be  subjected  to  the  penalty  of  being  separ- 
ated from  their  fellows  and  of  having  all  social 
privileges  taken  from  them.  They  may  be  obliged 
to  have  their  recesses  alone  and  be  forbidden  to 
speak  to  their  mates  at  any  time.  But 
even  for  this  class  of  pupils  there  should  be 
opportunity  and  encouragement  offered  for 
improvement.  As  soon  as  they  signify  their 
willingness  to  try  to  govern  themselves 
and  show  by  their  actions  ability  in  this 
direction,  they  should  be  placed  in  the  Pro- 
bation list  and  be  given  a  fair  trial. 

The  success  of  this  plan  as  that  of  any  plan 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  way  in  which  it  is 


The  Teacher  as  Organizer  219 

carried  out.  The  full  value  of  self  direction  and  Success  of  any 
self  control  in  conduct  will  be  understood  by  the  plan  dependant 
pupils    as  they  see  the  earnest  and   persistent  "P°"  ^  \^  *'*^'^ 

^    ^  .  ,  '^  and  patience 

emphasis  which  the  teacher  makes  upon  it  day  of  the  teacher, 
by  day,  and  as  they  realize  the  feeling  of  satis- 
faction experienced  in  successful  achievement. 
Great  tact  and  patience  will  be  needed  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  to  maintain  the  continued 
interest  of  the  pupils.  The  result  need  not  be 
feared  so  long  as  the  teacher  thoroughly  believes 
both  in  the  principle  and  in  the  children.  * 

*  See  the  author's  Courses   and  Methods,    pp. 
328-344. 


CHAPTER  XI 


Education  for 
the  sake  of  so- 
ciety and  the 
state. 


The  duty  of 
the  state  to- 
ward defect- 
ives and  delin- 
quents. 


SCHOOLS   FOR   DEFECTIVES   A^'D    DELINQUENTS 

Public  school  education  is  maiutained  for  the 
sake  of  society  and  Education  for  the  sake  of 
society  and  the  state,  as  well  as  of  the  in- 
dividual. It  is  at  once  constructive  and  pre- 
ventive— constructive  in  helping  to  create  high 
ideals  and  intelligence,  and  preventive  in  help- 
ing to  hinder  pauperism  and  crime.  For  the 
normal  bodied  and  minded  child  the  work  of 
education  is  mainly  constructive,  and  for  this 
reason  the  duty  of  the  state  to  foster  education 
for  that  class^  and  even  to  make  it  obligatory  up 
to  a  certain  point,  becomes  evident  to  all.  We 
see  that  it  is  a  wise  provision  of  statute  law  for 
the  upbuilding  of  society  and  for  the  happiness 
and  usefulness  of  individuals  that  every  normal 
child  shall  be  assured  of  a  common  school 
education. 

But  if  we  keep  in  mind  the  need  of  the  state 
to  protect  itself  and  the  dangers  to  individuals 
of  physical  and  mental  degeneracy,  we  may  see 
that  the  duty  of  the  state  toward  abnormal  or 
defective  children  is  even  more  imperative  than 
it  is  toward  the  normal  or  sound  ones.  It  is 
incumbent,  therefore,  upon  the  state  to  provide 
means  of  education  for  all  classes  of  children 
who  are  capable  of  education,  and  to  provide 
care  for  ail  who  are  not.     With  the  law  upon 

(220) 


Schools  for  Defectives  and  Delinquents        221 

the  statute  book  making "  such  education  and 
care  mandatory,  it  becomes  necessary  to  define 
the  means  of  carrying  the  law  into  effect. 

It  is  said  by  good  authority  that  from  one-fifth  special  treat- 
to  eight  per  cent  of  the  children  are  what  may  be  ment  needed 
called  abnormal  children,  i.  e.,  children  who  are  fo\;^'i°oi™ai 

.  children. 

defective  either  m  body  or  mind  so  as  to  need 
special  care  or  treatment, — the  smaller  per  cent 
indicating  the  proportion  of  children  who  are 
feeble  minded,  and  the  larger  per  cent  includ- 
ing the  children  who  are  abnormally  dull  as  well 
as  those  who  are  physically  defective.  At  present 
a  good  proportion  of  these  children  are  either  in 
the  regular  schools  blocking  the  progress  of 
others,  or  else  they  are  outside  the  pale  of  the 
schools  waiting  to  commit  some  crime  before 
they  can  be  brought  to  the  notice  and  protection 
of  the  state.  * 

In  general,    there    may    be  said    to    be  two 

*  Dr.  Edward  M.  Hartwell,  of  Boston,  in  a 
computation  recently  made  for  the  writer,  re- 
ports as  follows:  "1,38-1-,  or  0.324:  per  cent  of 
the  population  of  school  age  (5  to  15  years)  in 
Massachusetts  in  1895,  were  non-educable  in  the 
public  schools;  384,  or  0.09  per  cent,  were  men- 
tally defective,  i  .e.,  insane  or  idiotic."  Dr. 
Walter  E.  Fernald,  Superintendent  of  the 
Massachusetts  School  for  Feeble-Minded,  said  in 
an  address  before  the  Boston  Homeopathic 
Medical  Society  Feb.  6,  1902,  "I  am  confident 
that  if  every  case  was  included  there  would  be 
at  least  two  [feeble  minded  persons]  to  every 
thousand  of  the  population  of  the  states.  " 


TJiree  kiuds  of 
institutions. 


222         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

Two  classes  of  classGs  of  defectives:  (1)  those  that  need  scien- 
defectives.  tific  or  institutional  treatment,  such  as  the 
feeble-minded,  the  blind,  and  the  deaf-mute; 
and  (2)  those  whose  education  may,  with  some 
modifications,  be  conducted  on  lines  similar  to 
those  of  normal  children,  such  as  the  dull  or 
backward  children,  and  those  whose  sight  or 
hearing  is  but  partially  impaired. 

Upon  the  assumption  that  the  state  must  as- 
sume the  education  of  the  first  class  of  children 
named,  there  will  be  needed  three  classes  of  insti- 
tutions located  at  convenient  places  in  the  state — 
those  for  the  blind,  the  deaf-mutes,  and  the 
feeble-minded.  All  of  these  institutions,  with 
the  exception  of  the  non-educable  portion  of  the 
latter  class,  should  be  conducted  with  the  view 
of  making  their  pupils  self-supporting.  Indus- 
trial or  technical  training  of  various  kinds  will 
therefore  be  a  prominent  feature  of  the  educa- 
tion carried  on  in  these  institutions.  As  they 
are  supported  by  the  state,  they  will  be  free  to 
all  its  citizens,  and  will  afford  accommodation 
and  facilities  for  all  who  can  profitably  take  the 
training  offered. 

Attendance  upon  these  institutions  will  be 
compulsory ;  that  is,  the  state  will  assume  the 
same  authority  over  its  weak  subjects  which  it 
assumes  over  its  sound  ones,  by  obliging  all  de- 
fective children  of  a  certain  age  who  are  not 
otherwise  cared  for  to  take  the  training  it  offers 
in  one  or  another  of  its  institutions.  This  should 
be  done  on  the  principle  that  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  state  to  protect  the  child  from  the  neglect  of 


Schools  for  Defectives  and  Delinquents        223 

the  parent  or  guardian.     This  principle  of  pro-  Education  of 
tection  from  neglect  is  to  be  applied  to  all  classes  iicfectivcs 
of  children.     But  in  the  case   of   mentally   or  obligatory, 
physically  unsound  children  there  is  an  added 
reason    for   making    education   obligatory — the 
reason  that  has  already    been  given  for  estab- 
lishing schools  for  defectives — namely,  that  of 
the  protection  of  society  and  of  the  state.     The 
state    schools  here  refered  to  are  for  that  class 
of    educable    defectives  who   need  scientific  or 
institutional   treatment.     They  may  be  said  to 
be  a  part  of  the  public  school  system   of   the 
state,  because  they  are  free  to  all  residents  of  the 
state,  and  are  under  the  direction  and  control 
of  the  educational  authorities  of  the  state. 

The  other  class  of  educable  defectives  are 
those  which  should  be  educated  directly  in  con- 
nection with  the  city  or  town  public  schools. 
This  will  be  done  by  separating  them  into  small 
groups,  and  by  placing  over  them  skilled  teach- 
ers, with  the  expectation  that  they  will  be 
treated  for  the  most  part  individually  with  special 
ends  in  view. 

In  cities  or  large  towns  in  which  there  is  a  ^  , 
sumcient  number  of  defectives  to  form  into  f^,.  defectives, 
groups,  the  plan  will  be  simply  to  separate 
those  of  school  age  —  say  from  seven  to 
fourteen — into  groups  of  ten  or  fifteen,  and 
place  the  groups  in  convienient  localities.  If  the 
number  to  be  trained  is  large  enough,  there 
should  be  a  classification  according  to  attainm<'nt 
and  capacity ;  but  it  should  be  understood  that 
the    treatment   of   this  class  of   pupils    will    be 


224         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

chiefly  individual.  The  experience  of  Provi- 
dence, R.  L,  and  other  cities  with  the  schools  of 
weak-minded  and  backward  pupils  shows  what 
can  be  done  with  a  class  of  children  whose 
neglect  means  degradation  and  crime.  So  great 
is  the  menace  to  society  of  a  continuance  of  this 
neglect,  that  the  state  is  justified  in  obliging 
towns  and  cities  to  properly  train  in  special 
schools  all  abnormal  children  who  do  not  need 
the  institutional  treatment  of  which  I  have 
spoken.  For  the  cities  and  large  towns  this  will 
not  be  a  difficult  matter,  as  has  been  shown  by 
experience. 

For  country  districts  provision  may  be  made 
for  carrying  the  children  to  a  central  school,  or 
for  establishing  small  home  schools  in  conven- 
couutry  dis-       i^nt  localities.     These  schools  should  be   under 
tricts.  the   charge   and   superintendence    of   the   local 

public  school  authorities.  In  states  like  Massa- 
chusetts, where  district  supervision  prevails,  the 
schools  may  be  under  the  direction  of  the  super- 
intendent and  district  committee,  the  expense  of 
the  schools  being  borne  by  the  towns  from  which 
the  pupils  come.  In  country  districts  whose 
unit  of  government  is  the  county,  the  schools 
may  be  organized  and  controlled  by  the  county 
board  and  county  superintendent,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  carrying  them  on  will  be  borne  by  the 
county. 

It  is  then,  to  summarize  what  has  been  said 
in  this  chapter,  both  right  and  feasible  for  all 
educable  children  to  be  included  in  the  scope  of 
the  public  school  system,  and  to  share  in  its  ben- 


Provision  for 


Schools  for  Defectives  and  Delinquents        225 

efits  and  its  obligations.  It  is  also  right  and 
feasible  for  the  state  to  place  all  educable  chil- 
dren of  a  certain  age  under  the  statutory  re- 
quirement of  compulsory  school  attendance,  to 
the  end  of  giving  all  its  citizens  the  benefits  of 
intelligence  and  self-support,  and  of  guarding 
itself  and  society  against  the  dangers  of  ignorance 
and  crime. 


CHAPTER  XII 

RECORDS  AND  REPORTS      '^ 

Only  useful  The  first  and  most  important  consideration  in 

recousto   e     determining-  the  character  and  amount  of  records 

made.  ^ 

to  be  made  is  that  of  use.  The  time  has  gone  by 
for  records  of  any  kind  to  be  made  that  are  not 
distinctly  serviceable  in  the  interests  of  the 
schools.  Traces  of  useless  records  of  examina- 
tions and  deportment  of  pupils  and  of  fine  book- 
keeping are  found  in  some  places ;  but  generally 
it  may  be  said  that  teachers  and  superintendents 
are  too  busy  with  the  processes  of  education  to 
spend  much  time  in  recording  the  supposed  re- 
sults of  it,  or  in  keeping  an  elaborate  system  of 
account  for  show. 

The  legal  requirements  with  reference  to  school 
attendance,  certification  of  teachers,  course  of 
studies,  etc.,  differ  in  the  various  states  and 
therefore  the  required  records  are  correspond- 
ingly varied.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  estall3- 
lish  a  plan  of  statistics  in  this  country  which 
will  be  uniform  and  at  the  same  time  be  limited 
in  their  scope  to  items  that  are  useful  for  com- 
parison. 

The  most  helpful  scheme  that  has  been  made 
is  one  that  was  prepared  by  a  committee  of  the 
National  educational  association  in  ISi^ii.  This 
report  with  a  supplementary  rejDort  made  the 
following  year  has  been  adopted  to  a  greater  or 

(226) 


Records  and  Reports  227 

less  extent  in  several  states.     The  following  out-  Piau  of  statist- 
line    was    recommended    for   general  adoption,   ifsiecommend- 
The  items  are  arranged  in  three  classes.     The  v,*'"     ^v^^ 
first  list  includes  the  essential  facts  which  should  cationai  Asso- 
be  gathered  every  year.     The  second  list  contains  ^'ation. 
statistics,    to    be    furnished    every    second     or 
third  year.     The  third  list  consists  of  less  essen- 
tial items  which  may  be  collected  at   still  rarer 
intervals. 

I    Fundamental  Items 

1.  Number  of  children  of  legal  school  age, 
classified  by  race  and  sex  (school  population) 

2.  Number  of  pupils  enrolled  on  the  school 
registers  (excluding  duplicate  registrations), 
classified  by  race  and  sex 

3.  Average  daily  attendance,  classified  by  race 
and  sex 

4.  Average  length  of  school  year  (days) 

5.  Number  of  teachers,  classified  by  race  and 
sex 

6.  Number  of  pupils  receiving  kindergarten 
instruction,  classified  by  race  and  sex 

7.  Number  of  pupils  receiving  elementary  in- 
struction (including  kindergarten  pupils),  classi- 
fied by  race  and  sex 

8.  Number  of  pupils  receiving  secondary  in- 
struction, classified  by  race  and  sex 

9.  Number  of  students  receiving  higher  in- 
struction 

10.  Number  of  students  in  special  schools 

1 1 .  Number  of  buildings  used  as  schoolhouses 

12.  Total  seating  capacity  of  such  l)uildings 


228  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

13.  Value  of  all  property  used  for  school  pur- 
poses 

14:.  Average  monthly  salaries  of  teachers,  class- 
ified by  race  and  sex 

15.  Total  school  revenue,  (1)  Income  from 
productive  funds  and  rents,  (2)  State  school  fund, 

(3)  Local  taxes,  (-1)  Other  sources 

16.  Total  expenditure,  (1)  Salaries  of  teachers 
(including  supervision),  (2)  Other  current  ex- 
penses, (3)  Permanent  expenditure  (for  build- 
ings, grounds,  etc.) 

17.  Amount  of  permanent  invested  funds 

II    Less  Essential  But  Desirable  Items 

18.  Age  classification  of  pupils  enrolled.  (1) 
Number  of  pupils  under  six,  (2)  Number  of 
pupils  between  six  and  seven,  etc.,  (3)  Number 
of  pupils  between  fifteen  and  sixteen,  (4)  Num- 
ber of  pupils  over  sixteen. 

19.  Number  of  cases  of  tardiness 

20.  (1)  Number  of  pupils  born  within  the  state 

(2)  Number  of  pupils  born  in  other  states 

(3)  Number  of  pupils  born  in  foreign  coun- 
tries 

21.  Occupation  of  Parents  (I)  Agents,  (2) 
Bankers  and  brokers,  (3)  Clerks  and  salesmen, 

(4)  Domestic  servants  and  waisters,  (5)  Draymen 
and  teamsters:  (and  fifteen  others) 

22.  Average  number  belonging,  including,  tem- 
poraiy  absentees 

23.  Number  of  pupils  in  each  branch  of  study 

24.  Average  age  of  pupils.  Kindergarten, 
elementary,  secondary,  higher  and  special, 


Records  and  Reports  229 

25  Normal  schools  (1)  Number,  (2)  Enroll- 
ment in  normal  department,  (3)  Average  attend- 
ance, (4)  Number  of  teachers,  (5)  Expenses 

///    Occasional  Items 

26.  Number  of  teachers  who  have  taught  less 
than  two  years,  from  two  to  five  years,  over 
five  years 

27.  Number  of  applicants  for  teachers  certifi- 
cates,  number  who  are  certified 

28.  Number  of  teachers  graduates  (1)  of  normal 
schools,  (2)  of  universities  and  colleges,  (3)  of 
high  schools,  academies,  etc.,  (4)  who  have 
received  only  an  elementary  education 

29  Number  of  pupils  dropped  and  readmitted 
in  the  course  of  the  year 

30  Number  of  hours  in  each  school  session 

31  Length  of  recesses  or  intermissions  and  time 
of  beginning 

32  Number  of  cases  of  corporal  punishment 

33  Number  of  pupils  in  each  grade  promoted 
to  next  higher  grade 

Teachers^  Annual  and  Monthly  Reports.  — It  Tiir  danircr  of 
should  be  obser^^ed  that  the  conditions  differ  ■'■.luirin,-  u>o 
widely  in  the  various  cities  and  towns,  and  that 
what  is  advisable  or  necessary  in  a  large  system 
of  schools  may  not  be  needed  in  a  small  one. 
The  danger  hes  in  requiring  of  teachers  too  many 
records  rather  than  too  few.  The  question 
should  always  be  asked,  before  auy  new  statis- 
tics are  required,  "Are  they  actually  needed  to 
make  more  effective  the  work  of  the  schools?" 
If  intelligent  teachers  and  superintendents  can- 


luaiiv  ret- 


230         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

not  see  any  possible  connection  between  the  ends 
they  desire  to  reach  and  the  records  they  are  re- 
quired to  make,  the  requirements  may  well  be 
reconsidered  and  revised. 

No  reference  is  made  here  to  the  registers, 
returns,  and  certificates  whose  forms  are  either 
designated  by  law  or  determined  by  the  require- 
ments of  state  or  national  authorities.  The 
forms  of  records  are  usually  designated  by  blanks 
sent  out  from  the  central  offices.  Sometimes 
additional  information  is  needed  for  the  report 
of  the  school  board  for  superintendent,  such  as  is 
called  for  in  the  following  set  of  questions : 

Eeport  for  the  School  Year  ending 

school teacher.  - 


This  blank  and  others  which  follow,  are 
made  from  blanks  in  actual  use.  No  credit  is 
given,  however,  for  the  reason  that  in  most  cases 
some  changes  have  been  made. 

1.  Number   of  pupils  tardy, ;  once, ; 

twice, ;  three   times, ;  more   than   three 

times, . 

2.  Whole  number  of  cases  of  tardiness, . 

3.  Number   of    pupils   absent, ;  one  half 

day, ;  two   half   days, ;  more   than   one 

day, . 

4.  Names  of  pupils  neither  absent  nor  tardy: 


*  This  blank  and  others  which  follow,  are 
made  from  blanks  in  actual  use.  No  credit  is 
given,  however,  for  the  reason  that  in  most  cases 
some  changes  have  been  made. 


Records  and  Reports  231 

5.  Number  of  cases  investigated  by  the  truant 
officer, . 

6.  Xumber  of  cases  of  truancy, . 

7.  Number  of  pupils  who  have  been  truants, 
;  once, ;  twice, ;  three  times  or  more, 


8.  Number  of  cases  of  corporal  punishment, 

9.  Number  of  pupils  who  have  been  corporally 
punished, ;  once, ;  more  than  once, , 

1().   Aggregate  number  of  days'  attendance  of 
all  the  pupils, . 

11.  Number  of  days  in  which  the  school  was 
in  session,  including  legal  holidays, . 

12.  Number  of  seats, . 

13.  Number  of  visits  during  the  year: 

By  members  of  the  school  committee, . 

By  the  superintendent  of  schools, .    ^ 

By  all  others, . 

Monthly   or    term    reports    containing    facts  Mouthly  or 
which  the  superintendent  desires  to  know  or  to  ^'■''"'  leports- 
have   at   hand    are    sometimes    required    from 
teachers,  such  as  are  called  for  in  the  following 
blank : — 

Eeport  for  the  month  ending 

school teacher. 


1.  Enrolment, . 

2.  Average  meml)ership,- 

3.  Average  attendance,- 


4.  Per  cent,  of  attendance, . 

5.  Number  of  cases  of  tardiness, - 

6.  Number  of  pupils  tardy, . 

7.  Dismissals, . 


232         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


Teachers' 
monthly  or 
quarterly 
record  of  what 
has  been  done. 


8.  Number   of    pupils    neither    abs^ut    nor 
tardy, . 

9.  Number  of  cases  of  truancy, . 

[On  the  back  of  this  sheet  write  the  name,  age  and  residence  of 
each  truant,  and  time  of  truancy.] 

10.  Number    of    cases    of    corporal    punish- 
ment,  . 

11.  On  the  back  of  this  sheet  give  the  follow- 
ing facts  concerning  non-resident  pupils :  Name, 

;  name  and  residence  of  parent  or  guardian, 

;  number  of  weeks  attendance  since  begin- 


ing  of  school  year, . 

Teachers^  Special  Reports. — A  superintendent 
needs  to  have  as  intimate  a  knowledge  as  possi- 
sible  of  what  each  teacher  and  school  is  doing. 
This  knowledge  he  gets  in  part  from  personal 
inspection  and  in  part  from  special  reports  of 
teachers,  giving  somewhat  in  detail  the  subjects 
that  have  been  treated  during  a  given  period. 
The  monthly  or  quarterly  record  of  what  has 
been  done  by  each  class  is  also  useful  to  new 
and  substitute  teachers.  It  serves  as  a  guide  to 
such  teachers  in  taking  up  the  new  work,  and 
enables  them  at  once  to  meet  the  needs  of  every 
class  and  pupil  in  an  intelligent  way.  To  aid 
teachers  of  graded  schools  in-  making  the  desired 
record,  the  following  blank  might  be  furnished 
them:  — 

School    record 

for  the ending 

school teacher 

[To  the  teacher:  Please  fill  this  blank  in  duplicate  at  the  close  of 
the  term,  sending  one  copy  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  and 
leaving  one  copy  in  the  desk  of  the  school.  If  you  are  to  leave 
the  school  in  the  middle  of  the  term,  please  fill  the  blank  for  a 


Records  and  Reports 


233 


part  of  the  term,  disposing  of  the  copies  as  before  mentioned.  On 
the  other  side  of  this  sheet,  under  the  head  of  remarks,  give  the 
kind  of  scholarship,  characteristics,  etc.] 


Subject 

Grade 

Grade 

Reading 

Space  is  to  be  given  in  the  blank  for  each 
branch  of  study. 

On  the  reverse  side  of  the  sheet  the  blank  will 
be  as  follows; — 

Pupils  of  grade 


Remarks 


In  ungraded  schools  the  work  done  might  be 
outlined  by  subjects  and  classes,  as  indicated  in 
the  following  blank : — 

Town  of 

school  teacher 

Class  Record  in  [subject  to  be  written  here] 

[Here  may  be  inserted  directions  to  teachers,  as  given  in 

l)revious  blank] 


Class 

Number 
of   pujnls 

Record  of  worl<  d<>iii> 

First, 

On  the  reverse  side  the  name,  age,  etc.,  of  the 
pupils  will  be  written,  as  provided  in  the  pre- 
vious blank. 


234         Sc?iool  Organization  and  Supervision 


Daily  prog- 
ramme of  ex- 
ercises to  be 
sent  to  tlie 
superinteQ- 
deat. 


The  information  given  in  the  school  and  class 
records  is  supplemented  by  a  knowledge  of  what 
each  school  is  doing  daily  and  houily.  Such 
knowledge  enables  the  superintendent  to  know 
when  he  may  go  to  a  school  to  hear  any  given 
exercise  which  he  wishes  to  hear.  The  teacher 
should  therefore  send  to  the  superintendent  a 
carfully  planned  daily  programme  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  term,  or  whenever  a  change  in  the 
programme  is  made.  For  purposes  of  clearness 
and  definiteness,  as  well  as  of  assistance  to  the 
teacher,  forms  similar  to  the  following  might  be 
provided : — 

Order  of  exercises 
school 


grade 

teacher 

[Make  two  copies,  one  to  be  kept  on  the  desk,  the  other  to  be  sent 
to  the  superintendent's  office.] 


Recitation 


Studv 


Another  form  might  be  as  follows : 


Time 

Recitation 

Busy  work  and  Study 

Begins 

Length 

Grade  I 
(lowest) 

Grade  II 

Grade  III 

Grade  IV 

Still  another  form  is  suggested  which  will  in- 
clude a  statement  of  the  amount  of  time  given 


Records  and  Reports 


235 


to  recitation  and  to  study  for  each  grade  of  pu- 
pils. For  the  assistance  of  teachers  a  suggested 
apportionment  of  recitation  time  for  the  various 
subjects  might  be  printed  on  the  blank.  The 
following  blank  is  designed  for  an  ungraded 
school.  It  mav  be  modified  to  suit  circum- 
stances. 


Programme  of  daily  recitations 

for  the ending 190 

school  teacher 


Time 

1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

Subject 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

Year 

From      To 

1      2 

1      2 

1      2 

1     2 

1     2 

1     2 

1      2 

1    2 

Total  time  iu  school  day miu. 

Openlug  exercises, miu. 

Recesses " 

Physical  exercise, " 

Total, mill. 

Time  left  »for  recitations, iiiiii. 

For  first  year  pupils mlii. 

For  second  year  pupils luin. 

For  third  y^ar  pupils miu. 

For  fourth  year  pupils, luin. 

For  fifth  year  pupils, niin. 

For  sixth  year  pupils niin. 

For  seventh  year  pupils, niin. 

For  eighth  year  pupils, niin. 

Total  ......  "lin. 


236         School  Organization  and  Supervision 

Suggested  Apportionment  of  Time  to  the  Several  Subjects  of  the 
Several  Years 


GROIPS   OP   SUBJECTS 

1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

I    Language:  including  reading, 
writing,  spelling,   memory  work. 
English,    grammar,   foreign  lan- 
guage     

.42 

,42 

.38 

.32 

.32 

.32 

.32 

.33 

II    Mathematics:      including 
arithmetic,    algebra,    book-keep- 
ing, geometrical  exercises 

.12 

.12 

.15 

.16 

.16 

.16 

.16 

.20 

Ill    Elementary    Sciencb:     in- 
cluding nature  study,  physiology, 
geography,  etc, 

.12 

.12 

.15 

.20 

.20 

.20 

.16 

.12 

IV    History:  including  biography, 
history,  civil  government  

.10 

.10 

.10 

.12 

.12 

.12 

.15 

.15 

V    Miscellaneous  :  including 
drawing      and     arts,      industrial 
training  and  singing 

.24 

.34 

.22 

.20 

.20 

.2-) 

.20 

.20 

EXPLANATION:— The  1  and  2  in  columns  marked  1st  year, 
2d  year,  etc  ,  may  refer  to  divisions  of  the  same  class;  or,  in 
schools  where  promotion  occur  twice  a  year,  may  refer  to  First 
Half  Year  Pupils  and  Second  Half  Year  Pupils.  To  indicate  which 
division  ofa  class  isreciting  at  a  certain  time,  put  a  cross  (x)  under 
1  or  2  in  the  proper  Year  column,  on  the  line  opposite  the  subject. 
If  the  class  recites  as  a  whole  and  not  in  divisions,  put  the  cross- 
(x)  in  the  middle  of  the  space,  on  the  dotted  line, in  the  proper  Year 
column.  Where  the  exercise  includes  the  whole  school,  put  a 
cross  (x)  in  dotted  line  in  such  Year  column  as  there  are  classes  in 
the  school. 

Corporal  pun-  The  teacher  should  send  to  the  superintendent 
ishment report,  the  details  of  any  important  event  of  the  school, 
such  as  a  case  of  truancy  or  of  corporal  punish- 
ment. To  aid  him  in  giving  full  and  exact  infor- 
mation, blanks  should  be  furnished  in  which  the 
desired  points  are  indicated.  For  example,  in  a 
case  of  corporal  punishment  such  questions  as  the 
following  might  be  given  in  the  blank: — 

1.  Name  and  age  of  person  punished 

2.  Date  of  punishment 

3.  Manner  and  extent  of  punishment 

4.  Witness 


Records  and  Reports  237 

5.  What  was  the  offence  ? 

6.  What  do  you  know  of  his  general  charac- 
ter and  home  surroundings  ? 

7.  What  previous  offences  has  he  com- 
mitted, and  what  means  of  correction  were  em- 
ployed ? 

8.  State  other  facts  of  importance,  such  as 
responce  of  parents  to  reports,  times  of  previous 
punishments,  with  results,  etc. 

Reports  to  Parents. — To  secure  the  co-opera-  Reports  to 
tion  of  parents,  occasional  reports  should  be  sent  P^^'^^^s  should 
them  of  the  character  of  the  work  done  in  school  simple 
by  their  children.      It  is  not  necessary  to  send 
elaborate  reports  by  percentages,  nor  is  it  neces- 
sary to  send  them  very  often.     It  is  sufficient  to 
send  monthly  or  bi-monthly  such  information  in 
respect  to  attendance,  conduct  and  work  in  each 
subject   as  would  be  elicited  in  answer  to  the 
questions :  How  is  my  child  doing  in  each  branch 
of  study  ?     What  is  his   beliavior  ?     This  infor- 
mation should  be  given  in  the  briefest  possible 
form,    cases   requiring   explanation   being "  left 
to  special  reports,  which  will  be  referred  to  later. 

The  report  may  be  made  upon  a  card  of  con- 
venient size  or  upon  a  stiff  paper  folder,  and  en- 
closed in  a  stiff  paper  envelope  addressed  to  the 
parent.  Letters  may  indicate  the  character  of 
the  work  done,  as  A  for  excellent,  B  for  good,  C 
for  fair,  D  for  poor,  and  E  for  very  poor.  It 
would  be  well  if  the  report  for  each  l)rancli  of 
study  could  be  given  in  a  double  column,  so  as 
to  indicate  both  attainment  and  effort.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  either  upon  the  face  or 


238         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


back  of  the  report  for  the  teacher's  signature  and 
also  for  the  parent's  signature  to  be  made  every 
time  the  report  is  sent  home.  There  should  be 
a  careful  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  the  let- 
ters, and  a  statement  of  what  is  desirable  for  the 
parent  to  do  in  the  interests  of  the  child. 

The  following  form  of  report  is  suggested  as 
practical.  With  some  variations,  it  is  used  with 
success  in  many  schools.  If  thought  best,  the 
statement  to  parents  could  be  made  in  the  name 
of  the  superintendent  of  schools,  on  the  reverse 
side.  In  this  case  it  might  be  well  for  a  fuller 
statement  to  be  made,  embodying  the  aims  and 
purposes  of  the  schools,  and  the  desirability  of  a 
co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  parents. 
Public  Schools 

Report  of 

school  class 


For 

THE 

MONTH 

OF 

5 

■a 

V 

•11 

M 

O 

3 

a 
o 

>> 

■3 

"C 

a 

a 

1 
S 

0 

U 
as 

5 

s 
cs 

o 

o 
£ 

< 

j= 
a 

CO 

fct 

Sept.,  . 
Oct.,     . 
Nov.,   . 
Dec,    . 
Jan.,    . 

Signature 
of  parent 

or 
guardian 


To  the  parent  or  guardian:  A  means  excellent ;  B,  good  ;  C,  fair  ;  D,  poor  ; 
E,  very  poor ;  If  the  scholarship  or  deportment  continues  to  be  poor,  will  you 
please  call  at  the  schoolroom  for  further  particulars,  especially  if  health  or  any 
other  circumstance  prevents from  doing  more  work.  Irregularity  of  at- 
tendance greatly  interferes  with  the  progress  of  the  pupil,  and  may  oblige 

to  rejjcat  the  work  of  a  term  or  year.     You  are  cordially  invited  to  visit  the 
school  at  any  time.     Please  sign  and  return  as  soon  as  possible. 

,  teacher 


Records  and  Reports  239 

For  cases  of  pupils  who  are  thought  to  be  able  Various  forms 
to  do  a  greater  amount  of  work,  and  who  may  ^^  imports  to 
with  extra  effort  be  entitled  to  a  special  promo-  ^^^'^"  ^' 
tion  to  a  higher  class,  a  form  of  letter  may  be 
furnished  the  teacher  to  be  filled  out  of   some 
such  nature  as  the  following : — 

does  the  work  of  the  class  so  well  and  so  easily  that  I  am 

led  to  believe will  be  able  with  some  extra  work  to  go  into  a 

higher  class  before  the  regular  time  of  promotion.      If  in  your 

opinion health  will  warrant taking  up  extra  work,  and  if 

you  think  it  desirable  for to  do  so,  will  you  kindly  inform  me. 

or  call  at  the  schoolroom  soon  for  considtation. 

If  for  any  reason  a  pupil  does  the  work  as- 
signed to  him  so  poorly  as  to  render  his  reten- 
tion in  his  class  doubtful,  his  parents  ought  to  be 
informed  of  the  fact  in  sufficient  time  for  them 
to  co-operate  with  the  teacher  in  securing  from 
the  pupil  a  greater  degree  of  effort  if  deemed 
desirable.  At  least  two  months  before  the  reg- 
ular time  for  promotion  a  letter  in  some  such 
terms  as  are  expressed  in  the  following  blank 
will  be  found  useful  both  in  securing  the  co- 
operation of  the  parents  and  in  preventing  possi- 
ble complaints : — 

You  will  see  by monthly  report  that is  not  doing  tlior- 

oughly  the  work  assigned.  Thus  far  this  term  neither  tiie  daily 
work  nor  the  written  examinations  indicate  that  it  will  be  best 

for to  go  into  a  higher  division  next , but  that  it  may  be 

necessary    for to  review   the   present  studies  another  term. 

If,  however,  you  think  it  possible  or  best  for to  do  more  work, 

will  you  please  call  here  at  the  schoolroom  or  drop  me  a  note,  so 
that  we  can  have  a  better  understanding  of needs  and  capa- 
city, and  arrange  the  work  with  reference  to  tliem. 


240         School  Organization  and  Supervision 


A  coutinuous 
record  of  the 
condition  of 
children. 


The  co-operation  of  parents  is  especially 
needed  in  dealing  T\ith  unruly  pupils.  It  may 
be  secured  by  the  teacher  sending  a  letter  in  the 
following  terms: — 

You  will  see  by monthly  report  that deportment  hai 

not  been  good.  I  am  sorry  to  inform  you  that  it  is  still  uusatis- 
tory.  I  think  it  best  to  inform  you  of  the  fact  before  any  seri- 
ous form  of  punishment  is  resorted  to. 

In  all  the  blanks  for  letters  here  mentioned  it 
will  be  understood  that  dotted  lines  for  the  date, 
address  and  subscription  will  be  printed,  also 
lines  for  special  explanations  by  the  teacher. 

PupiVs  record.  The  recording  of  a  general 
statement  of  each  pupil's  characteristics  men- 
tioned above  suggests  the  desirability  of  extend- 
ing the  record  so  as  to  give  details  and  to  cover 
a  period  of  years,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of 
the  life  book  kept  in  the  schools  of  France.  The 
record  may  be  made  periodically,  as  at  the  close 
of  a  term  or  year,  or  it  may  l)e  made  whenever 
a  noteworthy  observation  is  made  of  any  pupil's 
conduct  or  work.  The  following  blanks  suggest 
the  simplest  method  of  following  the  former 
plan:  — 


Records  and  Reports 


241 


Born  iu- 


;  on- 


Name , 

Parent's  name,- 


Address,- 


Gradb 
Year    . 


Quarter  . . . 

Days  present 
Scholarship. 

Efifort 

Conduct  — 


1 

1906-1907 

1907-1908 

1908-1909 

1909-1910 

1910-1911 

1    3 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

A  means  excellent  :  B,  good  ;  C,  fair ;  D,  poor  ;  E,  very  poor. 


,Name,  - 
Parent, - 


Place  and  Date  of  Birth,- 


.2 
O 

"o 
o 

■§ 

so 

D  a 
< 

>> 

1! 
s 
o 
a 

3 
PL, 

Weak  Points 

in 
Scholarship 

t-  93 

H 

O  P. 

r. 

0) 

a 

2  « 

la 



1 

A  more  elaborate  and  in  some  respects  a  more 
useful  record  would-  be  that  made  in  small  note- 
books, one  notebook  being  devoted  to  each  pu- 
pil, and  being  intended  for  a  series  of  years. 
The  record  could  be  made  at  regular  or  irregular 
times.     The  pages  of  the  book  might  be  l)lank 


242  School  Organization  and  Supervision 

for  staments  of  any  kind  that  the  teacher  is  dis- 
posed to  make,  or  have  printed  upon  them  topics 
or  questions  to  indicate* to  the  teacher  desirable 
points  of  information.  The  following  blank 
page  is  suggested: — 

1.  Date  of  observation 

2.  Age  of  pupil, years, months, days 

3.  Sight  (good  or  defective) 

4.  Hearing  (good  or  defective) 

5.  General  health  (good,  fair,  poor) 

6.  Temperament  (nervous,  equable,  sluggish) 

7.  Power  of  observation  (good,  fair,  poor) 

8.  Power  of  attention  (good,  fair,  poor) 

9.  Power  of  application  (good,  fair,  poor) 

10.  Memory:     verbal, ;  thought 

11.  Imagination:  reproductive, ;  creative^ 

12.  Language: ;  originality ;  fluency 

13.  Reasoning  (good,  fair,  poor) 

14.  Leading  feeling  through  which  to  govern 

15.  Self-control  (good,  fair,  poor) 

16.  Industry  (good,  fair,  poor) 

17.  Obedience 

18.  Truthfulness 

19.  Trustfulness 

20.  Subject  of  deepest  interest 

21.  Objectionable  habits 

22.  General  remarks 

The  study  and  knowledge  of  individual  chil- 
dren such  as  is  implied  in  a  proper  filling  out  of 
the  above  blank  two  or  three  times  a  year  may 
not  be  possible  under  conditions  which  now  ex- 
ist in  most  places;  but  in  time  to  come,  when  the 
largest  number  of  pupils  that  one  teacher  will  be 
expected  to  know  and  teach  is  thirty,  not  only 


Records  and  Reports  243 

will  it  be  possible  for  such  a  study  of  individual 
children  to  be  made,  but  there  will  grow  out  of 
it  (if  good  teachers  are  pei  mitted  to  teach)  such 
corrective  and  constructive  individual  work  as 
will  enable  each  child  to  do  the  most  that  he  is 
capable  of  doing  and  be  the  most  that  he  is  cap- 
able of  being.  Then  will  be  accomplished  the 
purpose  of  education,  which  Plato  declared  tTTbe 
'jthe  giving  to  the  body  and  to  the  mind  all  the 
beauty  and  all  the  perfection  of  which  they  are 
capable". 


APPENDICES 


The  Evolution  of  School  Supervision 


APPENDIX  A. 

The  evolution  of  a  system  of  public  education,  or  Conditions 
of  any  function  of  it,  is  best  seen  where  the  will  of  niost  favorable 
the  people  has  had  full  and  free  opportunity  to  ex-  ^"^  *^^  ^^' 
press  itself,  and  where  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  gygtem  of  nub- 
allow  experiments  to  be  tried  and  mistakes  to  be  Hc  education, 
corrected.     The  place  in  this  country  in  which  these 
conditions  have  been  most  fully  met  must  be  ad- 
mitted to  be  Massachusetts.     In  that  State,  whatever 
may  be  said  of  the  mistakes  and  failures  that  have 
been  made,  they  were  the  results  of  conditions  for 
which    the    people     themselves     were    responsible, 
and  which  the  people  only,  either  directly  or  in- 
directly,   could     permanently    improve.     Moreover, 
when  the   conditions  were  improved,  the  improve- 
ments were  not  superimposed  from  without,  upon  an 
unwilling  or  an  unthinking  people,  but  were  made 
the  basis  of  still  further  improvement.     Only  in  this 
way  does  a  democratic  state  avoid  the  dangers  of 
frequently  changing  legislation. 

In  speaking  of  the  experience  of  Massachusetts, 
Dr.  William  T.  Harris  says:*  "In  studying  the 
records  of  this  State  one  is  impressed  by  the  fact 
that  every  new  movement  has  run  the  gauntlet  of 
fierce  and  bitter  opposition  before  adoption.  The 
ability  of  the  conservative  party  has  always  been 

*  Martin's  Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  public  school 
system,  p.  viii. 

(247) 


vision  in 
Massachusetts. 


248  Appendix  A 

conspicuous,   and  the  friends  of  the   new   measure 
have  been  forced  to  exert  all  their  strength,  and  to 
eliminate,  one  after  another,  the  objectionable  fea- 
tures discovered  in  advance  by  their  enemies.     To 
this  fact  is  due  the  success  of  so  many  of  the  re- 
forms and  improvements  that  have  proceeded  from 
this   State.     The  fire   of  criticism  has  purified  the 
gold   from  the   dross  in   a  large   measure   already, 
before  the  stage  of  practical  experiment  has  begun." 
Four  epochs  of       There  have  been  up  to  the  present  time  four  quite 
school  super-      distinctly    marked     periods    or    epochs    of    school 
supervision  in  Massachusetts.     The  first  period  was 
a  time  in  which  supervision  consisted  only  of  such 
oversight  and  direction  of  the  schools  as  each  com- 
munity or  municipality  saw  fit  to  provide,  with  no 
legal   limitation   or   obligation   beyond   the    duty  of 
providing  teachers  and  places  for  schools. 
School  super-         This   period    dates   from    the    passage   of   the   or- 
vision,  from        dinance    of   1647,   by    which    all    towns   of    a    given 
number    of    householders   were    obliged   to    support 
schools  of  a  certain  kind.     No  provision  was  made 
in  this  law  for  the  appointment  of  officials  to  see 
that  the  schools  were  established  and  maintained  or 
to  oversee  them.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  func- 
tions of  supervision  were  performed  in  various  ways 
by  the  towns.     In  some  towns  the  school  or  schools 
were    established    and    controlled    by    the    electors 
themselves  in  town-meeting.     In  others  these  duties, 
or  a  portion  of  them,  were  committed  to  the  resi- 
dent ministers  of  the  gospel  and  selectmen — or  to 
the  ministers  alone.     In  some  cases  special  commit- 
tees were  appointed  either  alone  or  in  conjunction 
Avith   the   ministers    and   selectmen   to    employ   the 
teachers  and  superintend  the  schools.     The  election 
of  teachers  was  determined  in  part  by  the  law  which 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  249 

provided  that  the  master  of  the  grammar  school 
was  to  be  approved  by  the  minister  of  the  town  and 
those  of  the  two  next  adjacent  towns.* 

As  may  be  supposed,  the  methods  of  supervision 
in  this  early  time  varied  quite  as  much  as  did  the 
means  of  organization,  depending  largely  upon  the 
interests  and  disposition  of  the  persons  employed 
to  look  after  the  schools.  As  these  persons  were 
quite  generally  clergymen,  and  as  the  importance  of 
their  function  in  education  was  universally  recog- 
nized, it  may  be  presumed  that  the  religious  or  theo- 
logical interests  of  the  children  were  carefully 
guarded  by  all  directive  agencies  possible.  Thus 
it  was  that  the  ministers  examined  the  children 
regularly  upon  the  catechism  and  Bible  and  upon 
the  sermon  of  the  preceding  Sunday.  This  might 
be  done  by  the  minister  alone,  or  by  him  in  con- 
junction with  his  colleagues  in  their  regular  formal 
visits. 

The  beginning  of  a  new  period  in  the  history  of  School  corn- 
school  supervision  was  marked  by  the  passage  of  a  ™itf<?('s  luithor- 
law  in  1789,  which  authorized  the  employment 
by  the  towns  of  a  special  committee  to  look  after 
the  schools.  This  Avas  the  first  legal  recogni- 
tion of  any  function  of  supervision  beyond  the  em- 
ployment and  examination  of  teachers.  It  mark«Ml 
the  beginning  of  that  system  of  town  and  city  sujier- 
vision  by  school  committees  wliii-li  now  so  cxti-n- 
sively  prevails.  The  practice,  under  the  new  law, 
of  placing  the  schools  in  the  charge  of  school  com- 
raittees,  increased,  until  in  1826  it  was  uiiidi'  ol)!!-:;!- 
tory  by  law. 

The  same  law   which   authorizr-d  the   einpioyiiKiit 

*  Ads  and  resolves  of  the  province  of  Massachusetts  lUty, 

i.,   p.   470. 


250. 


Appendix  A 


The  begiuning 
of  the  district 
system. 


Faults  and 
weaiinesses 
of  the  district 
system. 


of  special  town  committees  sanctioned  the  already 
common  practice  of  dividing  the  towns  into  districts 
in  which  schools  might  be  established.  The  enact- 
ment of  this  law  was  the  beginning  of  the  celebrated 
district  system,  which  was  destined  to  test  to  the 
uttermost  the  benefits  and  dangers  of  extreme  local 
government  in  the  direction  of  school  affairs.  In 
rapid  succession  the  districts  grew  in  importance 
in  relation  to  the  management  of  the  schools,  from 
the  possession  of  power  to  hold  meetings  of  citizens 
and  decide  upon  schoolhouse  sites  to  that  of  raising 
money  for  buying  land  and  for  building  and  furnish- 
ing the  school  buildings,  until  in  1827  each  district 
was  authorized  to  be  represented  by  a  man— elected 
either  by  the  town  or  district—  who  was  endowed 
with  authority  to  employ  the  teacher. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  a  plan  of  super- 
vision which  has  more  elements  of  weakness  than 
law  just  referred  to.  Two  different  and  frequently 
hostile  agencies  were  employed — a  prudential  com- 
that  which  prevailed  soon  after  the.  adoption  of  the 
mittee  and  a  town  committee  jealous  of  their  pre- 
rogatives as  examiners  and  supervisors.  When 
there  was  not  collision  between  these  two  agencies 
there  was  likely  to  be  collusion— and  it  is  difficult  to 
say  which  wrought  most  confusion  and  mischief  to 
the  schools.  "The  passage  of  the  law  providing  for 
the  creation  of  the  office  of  prudential  committees," 
says  George  H.  Martin  in  his  Evolution  ofjhe  Massa- 
chusetts scJiool  system,  "marks  the  utmost  limit  to 
the  sub-division  of  American  sovereignty— the  high- 
water  mark  of  modern  democracy  and  the  low-water 
mark  of  the  Massachusetts  school  system."* 

The  third  period,  which  may  well  be  called  the 

*Page  92. 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  251 

dark  period   of   supervision,   extended   to    the   time   The  dark 

when  towns  in  large  numbers,  seeing  the  disastrous   P^""'^ilc)fs"pt'i- 

'".  .  visiou. 

consequences  of  this  dual  system,  voluntarily  abol- 
ished that  part  of  it— the  district  system— which 
prevented  the  securing  of  the  best  teachers.  If 
there  were  apathy,  ignorance,  and  misdirection  in 
respect  to  supervision  during  this  period,  there  were 
also  signs  of  a  real  awakening  of  popular  interest  in 
the  common  schools.  The  existence  of  wrong 
methods  of  supervision  and  consequent  results  in 
poor  schools  aroused  a  group  of  enthusiastic  re- 
formers who  were  most  diligent  in  pointing  out  the 
necessity'  of  a  more  adequate  provision  for  the 
schools.  Horace  INIann,  James  G.  Carter,  Charles 
Brooks,  Edmund  Dwight,  and  other  leaders,  each 
in  his  own  way,  set  to  work  for  a  better  order  of 
things.  And  although  they  did  not  immediately  se- 
cure all  the  results  they  hoped  for,  enough  was  done 
to  give  an  impetus  to  education  whieli  was  most 
potent  in  forming  our  modern  system  of  common 
schools. 

Through  the  efforts  of  these  men  normal  schools  Progressive 
were  founded,  a  general  school  fund  was  raised,  niid  '"''' 
a  State  Board  of  Education  was  established.  All 
these  formative  measures  had  a  powerful  and  direct 
effect  upon  the  administration  of  tlic  public  schools, 
first  in  helping  to  abolish  the  district  system,  and, 
secondly,  in  leading  school  committees  to  improve 
their  means  and  methods  of  supervision.  Ever  after 
the  establishment  of  the  State  Board  of  Education 
in  1837  the  board  and  its  secretary  and  agents  wert> 
most  assiduous  in  their  efforts  to  induce  the  towns 
to  maintain  the  town  system  alone,  and  to  secure  Hi'- 


lislied. 


252 


Appendix  A 


Work  of  the 
state  board  of 
education. 


Members  of 
school  com- 
mittees ap- 
pointed as 
supervisors. 


passage   of  a    law  which   would  forbid   the   district 
system  to  be  adopted  in  any  town.* 

"While  it  was  rendering  this  service  it  was  at  the 
same  time  in  various  ways  helping  the  school  com- 
mittees to  improve  the  character  of  their  supervision. 
Two  circumstances  seemed  to  contribute  to  this  end : 
first,  the  necessity  of  having  a  number  of  well- 
educated  men  on  the  school  committee  able  to  ex- 
amine candidates  presented  for  teachers'  places, 
and,  secondly,  the  ever-advancing  standard  of  re- 
quirements for  teachers.  While  the  normal  schools 
aided  not  a  little  in  encouraging  a  demand  for  better 
teachers,  it  Avas  largely  to  the  constant  and  eloquent 
appeals  of  Horace  Mann,  through  addresses  and 
reports,  that  the  people  came  to  recognize  the  im- 
.  portanee  of  securing  the  best  teachers  possible. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  with  the  improvement 
of  the  teaching  there  grew  up  an  ever-increasing 
need  of  more  and  better  supervision  on  the  part  of 
school  committees.  It  was  by  the  various  school 
committees,  as  expressed  in  their  reports,  that  the 
demands  for  what  is  now  called  skilled  supervision 
were  most  urgently  made.  At  first  one  and  another 
board  of  school  committee  selected  one  of  its  own 
number  to  perform  the  duties  of  supervision,  on  the 
plea,  doubtless,  that  even  an  unprofessional  super- 
visor employed  all  the  time  could  do  the  work  more 
intelligently  than  could  several  men  in  odd  times  of 
a  busy  life.  Thus  the  school  committees  of  Cam- 
bridge in  1836  and  of  Gloucester  in  1850  had  each 


*  The  district  system  was  abolished  in  1859,  and  the  act  of 
abolition  was  repealed  the  same  year.  It  was  again  abolished 
in  1869.  A  law  was  passed  in  1870  allowing  any  town  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  to  re-establish  the  system.  It  was  finally  abol- 
ished in  1882. 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  253 

delegated  to  a  member  certain  supervisor}^  duties, 
and  had  designated  him  superintendent  of  schools. 

The  first  instance  of  the  appointment  of  a  superin-  The  appoiut- 
tendent  of  schools  other  than  that  of  a  member  of  ^^^ut  of  super- 
the   school   committee   was    in   Spring-field    in   1840.   ^.^tendents  iu  a 
mi  ■    1       T      .       1  •         -,  .       ,   .      few  towns. 

Ihe  superintendent  who  was  appomted  remained  in 

office  but  two  years.     The  first  permanent  appoint- 
ment of  such  an  official  was  made  in  Boston  in  1851. 
From  that  time  the  experiment  was  regarded  as  a 
success,  and  in  1854  a  law  was  passed,  amended  in 
1857  and  1860,  authorizing  towns  and  city  councils 
to  require  the  school  committee  "to  appoint  a  super- 
intendent of  public  schools  who,  under  the  direction 
and  control  of  said  committee,  shall  have  the  care 
and  supervision  of  the  schools. ' '     Under  this  law  the  skilled  super- 
cities  and  large  towns,  one  after  another,  adopted   vision authoi- 
the  plan  of  supervision  by  superintendents,  until  in   ^^^'^  '^7  ^'^^• 
1879,  twenty-five  years  after  the  permissive  bill  was 
passed,  thirty-five  cities   and  large  towns  had  em- 
ployed superintendents  for  full  or  nearly  full  time. 

During   all  these   years   in    which   the    cities   and   Supervision 
large  towns  were  providing  themselves  with  skilled   ^"'"  ^^^  smaller 
superintendents,    the    desirability    of    making    some    "^"^P''"^"- 
provision  by  which  th(^  smaller  towns  of  the  Com- 
monwealth could  have  the  benefit  of  this  supervision 
was   constantly   urged    by  the  Board   of   Education 
and  its  executive  officers.     It  is  not  necessary  here 
to  give  in  detail  the  history  of  the  struggle  in  behalf 
of  this  extended  supervision.     Suffice  to  say  that  in 
1888  a  laAV  was  passed  by  which  two  or  more  towns 
were    permitted    to    join    together    in    employing    a 
superintendent  of  schools,   the   expense   therefor  to 
be    largely    borne    by    the    State.     This    l;i\v     was 
amended  at  various  times,  and  under  its  i)n)visi()ns 
during  the  following  twelve  years  a  large  majority 


254: 


Appendix  A 


Skilled  super- 
intendents 
made  manda- 
tory. 


The  superin- 
tendent an  ex- 
pert advisor 
and  director, 
not  an  over- 
seer. 


The  law  of 
1888  strength- 
ened and  im- 
proved. 


of  the  towns  concerned  accepted  the  provisions  of 
the  law  and  formed  themselves  into  districts. 

So  strong-  Avas  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  the  meas- 
ure that,  following  the  time-honored  practice  0/ 
allowing  mandatory  legislation  to  wait  upon  the 
results  of  permissive  laws,  the  legislature  of  1900 
passed  a  bill  obliging  the  school  committees  of  all 
towns  and  cities  to  employ  a  superintendent  of 
schools  after  July  1,  1902,  those  towns  having  a  val- 
uation of  less  than  two  and  a. half  million  dollars  ta 
be  governed  by  the  law  relating  to  union  districts. 
This  bill  was  passed  in  full  recognition  of  the  great 
principles  that  teaching  and  training  children  need 
the  direction  of  trained  experts,  and  that  what 
affects  for  good  or  ill  one  part  of  the  State  affects  all 
parts. 

It  took  the  liberty-loving  people  of  ^Massachusetts 
more  than  a  century  of  tribulation  and  effort  to 
learn  these  great  truths,  but  the  end  attained  was 
worth  all  it  cost.  So  long  as  teaching  was  a  trade^ 
an  overseer  only  was  needed— someone  to  see  that 
the  quantity  of  service  was  w^hat  it  should  be:  but 
as  soon  as  it  became  a  profession  the  service  of  an 
expert  adviser  and  director  was  demanded  to  make 
sure  that  the  quality  of  the  work  done  was  of  the 
right  kind. 

Under  the  law  of  1888  all  unions  were  made  by 
the  volmitary  action  of  the  towns,  each  town  elect- 
ing what  district  it  shall  join.  To  prevent  the 
possibility  of  towns  being  left  without  a  superin- 
tendent, a  law  was  passed  in  1903  making  it  the  duty 
of  the  State  Board  of  Education  to  form  or  readjust 
union  districts  w^henever  it  is  necessary  to  do  so. 
A  change  in  the  law  was  soon  after  made  whereby 
district  superintendents  must  receive  from  the  State 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  255 

Board  a  certificate  of  qualification  before  they  can 
be  elected.  * 

It  is  difficult  to  contrast  the  supervision  of  seventy-  The  kind  of 
five  or  fifty  years  ago  w^ith  that  of  the  present  day,  supervision 
as  there  is  no  record  preserved  of  w^hat  was  done      ty  years  ago. 
in  the  earlier  time.     It  is  safe,  however,  to  assume 
that  in  most  places  not  much  directive  or  even  sug- 
•gestive  influence  was  exerted  upon  the  schools  be- 
yond the  formal  visits  of  the  school  committee,  at 
which  their  superior  knowledge  was  aired,  the  pupils 
surcharged  with  platitudes  and  advice  which  they 
could  not  understand,  and  the  teacher  flattered  by 
the  assurance  that  most  excellent  progress  had  been 
made. 

The  annual  reports  also  of  former  times  cannot 
be  said  to  have  greatly  affected  the  schools  or  public 
interest  in  them,  for  they  were  generally  filled  with 
glittering  generalities  concerning  education,  and 
fine-spun  commonplaces  respecting  the  virtues  or 
faults  of  youth  or  the  duties  of  parents.  In  many 
instances  the  repo-rts  are  found  to  contain  such  state- 
ments respecting  the  condition  of  the  schools  as  to 
give  assurance  that  perfection  was  reached,  or 
from  repeated  statements  of  continued  improvement 
that  the  schools  at  one  time  must  have  been  in  a 
deplorable  condition.  When  called  upon  to  descend 
to  particulars  in  their  report,  the  school  committee  ' 
made  a  running  commentary  upon  each  school  of  the 
town,  or  tried  to  show  the  importance  of  giving 
more  time  to  spelling  and  arithmetic. 

While  there  are  vestiges  remaining  in  modern 
practice  of  these  archaic  remains  of  innocent  official 
diversions,  there  are  positive  evidences  of  a  distinct 

*  The  details  of  supervision  under  district  ph'ui  are  given 
in  Appendix  B.  . 


256 


Appendix  A 


advance  on  all  lines  of  active  professional  direction 
of  school  affairs.  Where  superintendents  are  em- 
ployed the  schools  are  inspected  and  examined  by 
persons  who  have  made  a  lifelong  study  of  education, 
and  who  have  won  the  right  to  lead  the  teachers,  by 
years  of  successful  practice.  They  are  given  by  the 
school  committees  large  powers  in  all  the  details  of 
school  administration  which  require  professional 
knowledge  and  experience.  The  extent  of  those 
Present  pow-  powers  is  shown  by  answers  to  recent  inquiries  sent 
ers  of  supeiiu-  to  the  superintendents  of  schools  in  233  cities  and 
towns  of  Massachusetts.  The  following  table  shows 
the  degree  and  extent  of  authority  given  to  these 
superintendents. 


tendents  of 
schools. 


DUTIES 


Selection  of  text-books 

Selection  of  reference  books 

Selection  of  apparatus 

Making  of  course  of  studies 

Nomination    or    certification    of 

teachers 

Appointment  of  teachers 

Suspension  of  teachers 

Dismissal  of  teachers ', 

Inspection  and  direction  of  teachers' 

work 

Calling    and     conducting     teachers' 

meetings 

Promotion  of  pupils 


Number  of  Towns  in  which 
Certain  Degrees  op  Authority 
ARE  Exercised  by  Superin- 
tendents 


i.     a 

>. 

a 

0 

-g 

_ 

lot. 

c 

-a 

3 

a  ®5 

iz; 

<! 

1-5 

fe 

Ij  t) 

8 

85 

44 

92 

4 

9 

88 

38 

93 

5 

6 

81 

35 

103 

8 

3 

41 

21 

164 

4 

re 

67 

40 

95 

12 

45 

89 

60 

21 

18 

41 

104 

56 

16 

16 

48 

102 

61 

15 

' 

3 

8 

218 

4 

1 

2 

224 

5 

4 

16 

19 

187 

' 

The  figures  cited  make  a  remarkable  showing. 
They  show  that  to  a  large  majority  of  the  superin- 
tendents practically  full  power  is  given  in  the  in- 
spection and  direction  of  the  teachers'  work  and 
in   calling   and   conducting   teachers'  meetings.     If 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  257 

their  powers  stopped  here,  their  appointment  would 
be  justified.  But  they  are  given  further  duties 
which  bear  directly  upon  the  welfare  of  the  schools. 
About  40%  of  them  have  full  authority  in  the  nom- 
ination of  teachers  and  in  the  selection  of  text-books, 
reference  books,  and  apparatus,  while  nearly  all  the 
others  have  advisory  or  joint  authority  in  perform- 
ing those  duties.  In  over  70%  of  the  places  reported 
the  superintendent  has  full  power  in  making  courses 
of  studies,  and  in  over  80%  of  them  he  has  full 
power  in  all  matters  of  promotions  of  pupils. 

The  significance  of  these  facts  may  be  more  fully 
realized  when  it  is  considered  that  they  relate  to 
persons  who,  with  few  exceptions,  give  their  entire 
time  to  the  business  of  supervision,*  and  whose  work 
extends  over  all  the  schools  of  the  State. 

The  professional  character  of  their  work  is  further  The  profession- 
assured  by  the  fact,  shown  in  the  returns,  that  about  ^i'  character  of 

three-fourths  of  them  are  college  or  university  grad-  '  "'  "'^'^]'  '^ 

,  supervisor, 

uates,  and  have  had  an  average  of  over  12  years  ex- 
perience in  teaching.  Of  the  remaining  number 
nearly  all  are  either  graduates  of  normal  schools  or 
have  been  students  in  college  from  one  to  three 
years. 

This  statement  of  present  conditions  does  not  take  Supervision  of 
into  account  the  supervision  that  is  quite  generally   priixipals  mu) 
placed  in  the  hands  of  grammar-school  principals  in  ^1^^''"''  ''"'*''' 
the  cities  and  large  towns.     There  are  at  least  one 
hundred  municipalities  in  which  the  grammar-school 
principals,  under  the  direction  of  superintendents, 
have  from  eight  to  thirty  schoolrooms  to   visit  for 

*  Of  the  162  professional  superinterxlents  now  engaged  in 
265  cities  and  towns,  2.3  are  principals  of  high  or  grammar 
schools.  Three  others  are  em])loyed  oidy  a  i)orti()n  of  tho 
time. 


258 


Appendix  A  , 


No  exact 
measure  of  im- 
provement in 
supervision 
possible. 


Work  actually 
accomplished 
by  superin- 
tendents. 


the  purpose  of  suporvising-  the  work  done.  The 
supervisory  duties  performed  by  special  teachers  of 
manual  training,  singing,  physical  culture,  and  draw- 
ing ought  also  to  be  considered  in  making  up  a 
record  of  what  is  now  done  in  supervision.  Nearly 
all  of  the  143  special  teachers  of  drawing,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  the  186  special  teachers  of  sing- 
ing, have  more  or  less  supervision  of  the  work  done 
in  these  branches  by  the  regular  teachers. 

A  complete  statement  of  the  changed  character  of 
supervision  in  Massachuestts  would  involve  a  de- 
scription and  comparison  of  detailed  methods  exist- 
ing at  various  times.  That,  however,  is  manifestly 
impossible  on  account  of  the  meagreness  of  data 
concerning  past  methods  now  attainable  and  the 
great  variety  of  methods  employed  at  the  present 
time.  No  two  superintendents,  for  example,  will  be 
likely  to  agree  upon  the  precise  methods  employed 
in  conducting  teachers'  meetings  or  inspecting 
schools;  yet  in  these  respects,  as  in  all  other  duties 
that  have  been  noted,  the  tendency  in  recent  years  ^ 
toward  what  may  be  called  professionalism  in  super- 
vision has  been  most  marked. 

Instead  of  commending  merely  formal  and  memo- 
riter  work,  and  examining  in  such  a  way  as  to  en- 
courage such  work,  as  was  formerly  the  case,  super- 
intendents have  become  more  and  more  urgent  in 
requiring  thoughtful  and  original  work  from  pupils. 

The  teachers  have  been  helped  by  superintendents 
in  an  increasing  measure  to  employ  rational  methods 
of  teaching  rather  than  imitative  devices.  They 
have  been  more  fully  supported  in  an  exercise  of 
freedom  and  individuality  in  their  work,  and  have 
been  assisted  to  learn  in  good  ways  the  principles, 
of  their  profession.     In   short,  there  have  been  no 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  259 

great  progressive  movements  in  public-school  educa- 
tion in  which  superintendents  have  not  had  a  prom- 
inent part,  both  in  shaping  and  in  fostering  them. 
No  more  convincing  testimony  to  the  value  of  skilled 
supervision  could  be  offered  than  that  which  is  freely 
given  by  our  best  teachers,  who  invariably  prefer  to 
teach  where  such  supervision  exists,  by  which  they 
are  supported  in  their  best  efforts  and  are  led  to 
greater  proficiency  in  their  profession. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  history  of  public  education  Two  periods  of 
in  Massachusetts  may  be  said  to  have  had  two  P"l»lic  educa- 
periods— one  in  which  the  people  in  their  fidelity  ^k'"  ^n  ^I«ssa- 
to  local  self-government  kept  the  immediate  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  in  their  own  hands,  and  the  other 
in  which  the  people  with  a  control  of  the  schools 
no  less  strong  than  before,  sought  in  increasing 
measure  to  give  into  the  hands  of  educational  ex- 
perts the  direction  of  that  part  of  the  work  of  the 
schools  which  required  professional  knowledge  and 
skill.  It  is  the  tendency  of  this  later  period  which 
helps  us  to  forecast  the  school  supervision  of  the 
future.  It  may  be  assumed  with  confidence  that 
the  schools  or  their  management  will  not  be  widely 
separated  from  the  control  of  the  people.  It  is  safe 
also  to  assume  that  the  schools  will  be  so  far  re- 
moved from  such  control  as  to  warrant  independence 
and  wisdom  of  action  on  the  part  of  school  commit- 
tees and  superintendents. 

If  these  assumptions  are  correct,  the  school  com-  Desirable  eon- 
mittees  will  not  under  any  circumstances  be  ap-  ditions  respect- 
pointed  officials,  but  will  be  elected  directly  by  the  ,',7memhe"oT 
people.  The  number  of  members  constituting  a  ^^.i,,,,,,  ,„,^rd 
board  will  be  small— not  in  any  case  over  twelve,  and  and  iiieir  term 
generally  less  than  seven.  Their  term  of  office  will  <>f  service, 
be  sufficiently  long  for  them  to  acquire  a  good  knowl- 


260 


Ap2^e7idix  A 


The  respective 
duties  of 
school  boards 
and  superin- 
tendents to  be 
defined. 


A  business 
agent  in  cities 
and  large 
towns. 


edge  of  their  duties,  and  will  expire  at  such  times 
as  to  enable  a  majority  of  the  members  to  remain  in 
continuous  service. 

Following  the  best  practice  of  the  past,  we  shall 
expect  to  find  in  the  supervision  of  the  future  a  unity 
of  service  and  at  the  same  time  a  well-defined  line 
of  separation  between  the  duties  of  the  general 
supervisory  board  on  the  one  hand  and  those  of  the 
expert  supervisory  force  on  the  other.  The  school 
committee  as  a  board  will  have  general  charge  of  the 
schools,  all  matters  of  detail  being  left  to  ex- 
ecutive officers  who  will  be  held  responsible  for 
results  to  the  general  board.  In  all  matters  relating 
directly  to  the  work  of  the  schools  the  superintend- 
ent will  take  the  initiative,  and  in  some  of  these 
matters  he  will  have  full  power.  He  will  take  the 
initiative  in  the  selection  of  teachers  and  choice  of 
text-books,  and  he  will  have  full  power  in  the 
making  of  courses  of  study,  in  the  placing  of  pupils 
in  school,  and  in  the  direction  of  the  teachers' 
work.  The  school-attendance  officers  and  directors 
of  hygiene  will  be  under  his  direction,  and  such 
other  executive  officers  as  have  to  do  directly  with 
the  work  of  the  schools. 

In  cities  and  large  towns  there  will  be  a  business 
agent  who  will  attend  to  all  matters  of  buildings 
and  of  supplies  other  than  school  equipment.  In 
towns  where  such  an  agent  cannot  be  exclusively 
employed,  the  work  will  be  delegated  to  such  per- 
sons as  can  perform  the  service  most  effectively  and 
economically.* 

*  Full  details  of  the  history  of  school  supervision  in  Mas- 
sachusetts and  the  duties  of  superintendents  of  schools  are 
given  in  a  special  report  upon,  city  and  town  supervision  of 
schools,  printed  in  the  Sixty-third  annual  report  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts board  of  education,  p.  291-330. 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  261 

When  the  respective  duties  of  the  school  commit-  District  com- 

tee  and  its  superintendent  are  determined,  and  both  ™ittees  and 

parties  trust  each  other,  there  will  be  no  need  of  any  '"'^"^  specia 
:  .  „    , .  committees  to 

intermediary  agencies,  of  district  committees,  com-  1,^  jriven  up. 

mittees  on  text-books  and  supplies,  and  on  nomina- 
tion of  teachers.  These  nesting-places  of  jobbery 
and  trades  will  exist  only  in  memory  of  the  time 
when  the  people  permitted  their  schools  to  become 
a  prey  to  political  ambition  and  selfish  greed.  The 
school  board  of  the  future  will  act  as  a  whole  in  all 
matters  of  business,  and  as  a  whole  will  meet  such 
recommendations  of  the  superintendent,  relating  to 
educational  questions,  as  need  its  action. 

In   large   places  some  supervisory  duties  will   be  Assistants  to 
delegated  to  assistant  superintendents,  principals  of  ^"P^"_°  ^'^' 
schools,  and,  in  rare  cases,  to  special  teachers.     But,   pieces, 
in  any  case,  there  will  be  bift  one  superintendent, 
who  alone  will  be  held  responsible  to  the  board,  and 
who,  therefore,  must  see  to  it  that  all  supervisory 
agencies  under  him  are  in  full  accord  with  his  policy. 

As  has  been  intimated,  the  functions  here  outlined  Assurance  of 
are  confidently  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  school  Progress  m 
supervision  of  the  future  because  they  are  the  logical 
outcome  of  past  and  present  tendencies.  With 
equal  confidence,  and  for  the  same  reason,  they 
may  be  expected  to  be  universally  adopted  through- 
out the  State  by  such  legislation  as  will  make  thorn 
compulsory. 

When   the   present  law,   compelling  all  towns   to  A  forecast  of 

employ  professional  superintendents,  has  been  tested,   wlmt  may  be 

,  /  ,.         •  1  f  expected, 

and  when  the  present  practice,   in  many   places,  ot 

giving  large  responsible   powers   into   tlw   hands  of 

the    superintendent     becomes     well-nigh     universal, 

protection  from  the  possible  dangers  of  charlatanism 

and  politics  will  be  asked  for  all  towns  an<l  cities  of 


262 


Appendix  A 


Needed 
features  in 
statute  laws  re- 
lating to  school 
supervision. 


the  Commonwealth  which  are  not  disposed  to  pro- 
tect themselves— and  it  will  be  granted  by  the 
passage  of  a  law  defining  the  duties  of  the  general 
supervisory  board  and  of  the  superintendent.  When 
that  time  comes,  place-seekers  for  the  sake  of  gain 
or  of  bestowing  favors  upon  friends  will  no  longer 
press  their  claims  for  membership  upon  school 
boards,  and  only  those  persons  will  be  elected  to 
that  office  Avho  take  a  strong  interest  in  the  schools 
and  who  are  willing  to  give  their  best  energies  for 
them. 

Thus  far  in  this  statement  matters  of  local  super- 
vision only  have  been  referred  to.  The  fact  that  the 
'authority  and  duties  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion in  Massachusetts  have  remained  essentially 
the  same  for  upwards  of  sixty  years  is  warrant  for 
believing  that  the  supervision  of  the  future  will 
not  be  centralized  to  the  extent  of  having  large 
responsibilities  in  the  hands  of  officials  far  removed 
from  the  people.  There  will  doubtless  be  in  the 
future,  as  in  the  past,  an  increasingly  high  standard 
of  educational  effort  and  attainment  required 
throughout  the  Commonwealth;  but  that  standard 
Avill  be  set  by  the  people,  through  their  representa- 
tives, and  be  embodied  in  statute  law. 

This  law  will  define  a  minimum  of  qualifica- 
tions for  superintendents  and  for  teachers,  whose 
professional  preparation  will  be  assumed  by  the 
State  free  of  cost  for  all  who  desire  it.  The  chief 
functions  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  will  be 
to  provide  this  preparation  by  the  maintenance  of 
normal  and  training  schools  for  all  classes  of 
teachers,  to  see  that  all  State  aid  for  schools  is 
wisely  distributed,  to  see  that  the  responsibility  of 
maintaining  a  high  degree  of  effort  on  the  part  of 


Evolution  of  School  Supervision  263 

the  towns  is  fully  met,  and  to  advise  school  officials 

as   to   good  means   and   methods  of  keeping  their 

schools  up  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence.     Besides 

all  this,  it  will  continue  to  be  the  duty  of  the  board 

and  its  executive  officers  to  arouse  the  interest  and 

enthusiastic  devotion  of  the  people  in  behalf  of  the 

public  schools. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  pertains  to  conditions  The  duties  of 

which  exist  in  Massachusetts.     It  may  be  assumed,  state  and  local 

therefore,  that  the  conclusions  reached  belong  only  ^^oardstobe 

to  that  state.     But  if  the  principles  stated  as  to  the     ^  , 

.  ^  ^  states. 

relation  of  the  people  to  the  schools  are  true,  and  if 

the  process  of  growth  outlined  is  a  natural  process 
of  evolution,  the  conclusions  reached  will  apply,  not 
only  to  Massachusetts,  but  to  every  other  state  as 
well.  The  duties  of  the  state  and  local  boards  of 
administration  will  be  so  adjusted  that  the  fvinctions 
of  the  former  will  be  only  general  and  advisory, 
while  the  functions  of  the  latter  will  be  limited  only 
by  wise  general  laws.  Administrative  boards  will 
not  be  given  skilled  supervisory  and  executive  duties 
which  belong  to  the  superintendent  alone.  Superin- 
tendents will  not  be  burdened  with  financial  and 
judicial  duties  which  belong  either  to  the  administra- 
tive board  or  to  a  court  of  law,  nor  will  the  field  of 
their  work  be  so  extended  that  they  cannot  have 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  each  school  under  their 
charge  and  be  able  to  direct  wisely  the  work  of 
each  teacher. 

The  exact  form  of  legislation  and  administration   Forms  of  legis- 
in  other  states  is  not  likely  to  be  the  same  as  it  is   1"^'""  '"»|  '•'!- 

or  will  be  in  Massacliusotts,  nor  need  the  steps  load-    '"'""/*  ^^  '°" 

.   .  not  to  be  the 

ing  to   a   well-adjusted   system   or   supervision    else-    same  in  all 

where  be  so  slow  or  difficult  as  they  have  been  in   states. 

that  State,  but  the  features  of  both  ornfanization  and 


264  Appendix  A 

means  of  applying  it  will  be  eventually  quite  alike 
in  all  states.  That  is,  there  will  be  maintained 
throughout  the  country  that  true  equilibrium  of 
central  and  local  processes  which  will  insure  steadi- 
ness of  purpose  in  establishing  and  maintaining  high 
ideals  of  public  education.  Moreover,  there  will  be 
that  '^  peaceful,  concerted  action  throughout  the 
whole,  without  infringing  upon  local  and  individual 
freedom  in  the  parts"  which  John  Fiske  declares  to 
be  the  "chief  aim  of  civilization  viewed  on  its  polit- 
ical side."* 
A  forward  When  that  time  comes  the  dangers  of  centralized 

^^^^-  authority  on  the  one  hand  and  of  misguided  self- 

government  on  the  other  will  no  longer  exist ;  school 
boards  will  not  be  found  wrestling  with  educational 
theories  and  their  application  for  the  purpose  of 
winning  the  applause  of  an  admiring  constituency; 
school  superintendents  will  no  longer  be  forced  to 
exhaust  their  energies  in  keeping  records  and  sta- 
tistics for  purposes  of  show,  or  in  doing  the  errands 
of  school  boards;  teachers  Avill  not  be  prevented 
from  doing  their  best  work  by  unwise  or  conflicting 
directions  from  superior  officers;  and  the  people, 
regarding  the  schools  as  the  surest  protection  from 
the  dangers  of  individual  and  social  degeneracy, 
will  not  be  willing  to  give  them  into  the  hands  of 
unworthy  persons  who  would  use  the  trust  for  selflsh 
or  political  ends.  Finally,  and  in  a  word,  when  the 
duties  of  supervision  become  properly  adjusted,  the 
evolutionary  lines  of  progress  will  no  longer  lie  in 
methods  of  administration  merely,  but  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  powers  of  the  child  in  the  light 
of  an  ever-growing  sense  of  his  nature,  his  needs, 
and  the  great  ends  for  which  he  is  placed  in  the 

world. 

*  American  political  ideas,  p.  6. 


The  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools 

APPENDIX  B. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  carrying  out  in  rural  Difficulties  of 
districts  the  principles  of  administration  as  defined  of  school  super- 
in  preceding  pages  will  be   readily   acknowledged.   '^J^|^°  ^°  ™'* 
In  fact  up  to  a  comparatively  recent  period,   few 
attempts  have  been  made  to  do  more  in  the  way  of 
supervision  than  to  make  provision  for  the  necessary 
beginning  and  continuance  of  the  schools. 

It  is  true  that  in  some  of  the  newer  sections  of 
the  country  efforts  were  made  almost  coincident 
with  the  establishment  of  the  schools  to  maintain  a 
certain  kind  of  supervision  which  was  thought  to  be 
superior  to  the  non-professional  supervision  formerly 
exercised  by  school  committees  in  the  country  towns 
of  New  England.  But  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  results  of  these  efforts  have  been  very  meagre. 

County  supervision  in  most  states  does  little  be-  County  supti 
yond  preventing  the  employment  of  grosslv  incompe-  '^''s"*"  '"' 

,  T      1  •  i.  -1  adequate. 

tent  teachers  and  the  maintenance  ot  a  certani  low 
standard  of  work  in  the  merely  formal  subjects.  In 
some  places  it  is  difficult  to  see,  from  the  character 
of  the  organization,  how  even  these  ends  can  be 
aecomplfshed.  The  inadequacy  of  salary  offered  to 
superintendents,  the  wide  extent  of  country  over 
which  they  have  to  pass  in  their  visits  to  the  schools, 
the  amount  of  non-professional  duties  put  upon 
them,  all  conspire  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  that 
system  of  skilled  supervision  which  is  found  easy  to 
organize  in  cities  and  large  towns. 

In  general  it  must  be  said  that  clianges  of  school 
(265) 


266 


Appendix  B 


Changes  to  be 
gradual  and 
agree  with  ex- 
istinir  political 
organization. 


Plan  of  super- 
vision in  Rich- 
mond Co., 
Georgia. 


School  tax 
levied  and 
collected  by 
county  board. 


School  fund 
distributed  ac- 
cording to  the 
needs  of  each 
ward  and  dis- 
trict. 


organization  should  be  effected  gradually  and  agree 
in  spirit  at  least  with  the  existing  political  organiza- 
tion. It  would  seem  necessary,  however,  for  some 
radical  changes  of  organization  to  be  made  before 
skilled  supervision  can  be  introduced  into  those 
portions  of  the  country'  where  the  political  unit  is 
the  county. 

Some  helpful  experiments  have  been  made  in  a 
few  counties  of  the  south  in  attempts  to  overcome 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  securing  skilled  super- 
vision. One  of  the  most  hopeful  of  these  experi- 
ments was  tried  several  years  ago  in  the  county  of 
Richmond,  Georgia,  and  the  plan  there  followed 
has  been  adopted  in  several  places.  A  summary  of 
this  plan  as  given  by  Superintendent  Lawton  B. 
Evans  in  the  Educational  Review'^  is  as  follows: 

"One  board  of  education,  composed  of  representa- 
tives elected  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  three  years, 
one-third  of  the  membership  expiring  every  year, 
has  charge  of  the  entire  school  interests  of  the  city 
of  Augusta  and  of  the  county  of  Richmond.  This 
board  of  education  has  the  unique  power  of  levying 
a  school  tax  directly  upon  the  people  of  the  county, 
without  revision  by  any  other  authority  and  without 
any  limit  as  to  rate  or  amount.  The  school  tax  is 
levied  and  collected  as  a  uniform  rate  upon  all 
property  of  the  county,  whether  it  is  in  the  city  or 
out  of  it.  This  forms  the  general  school  fund  of 
the  county,  supplemented  by  the  state  appropriation. 

' '  When  it  comes  to  the  distribution  of  this  fund  no 
regard  is  paid  to  the  amount  raised  by  any  ward  of 
the  city  or  any  district  of  the  county,  but  the  fund  is 
distributed  according  to  the  necessities  of  each  ward 
and  district,  determined  by  the  number  of  children 

*Volume  ii,  page  371-373. 


Supervision  of  Rural  Schools  267 

to  be  educated.  The  school  fund  of  the  whole 
county  is  raised  by  a  tax  on  all  the  property  of  the 
county  and  is  distributed  upon  the  basis  of  the  school 
population  of  each  community.  Thus  it  happens 
that  a  community  rich  in  naught  else  but  children 
will  get  a  flourishing  school  paid  for  by  its  wealthier  ■ 
but  less  fortunate  neighbors. 

"As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  large  part  of  the  money  Rural  schools 
paid   by   the    city   is    annually   spent    in   the    rural  given  a  fair 
districts,  for  the  city  has  nine-tenths  of  the  taxable  ^^^i"^  of 
property,  but  only  three-fourths  of  the  school  popula-  '"^"^J'- 
tion.     So  it  happens  that  the  rural  schools  pay  one- 
tenth  of  the  school  tax  and  receive  the  benefit  of 
one-fourth   of   it.     Augusta   has   spent   in   the   past 
twenty  years  the  sum  of  $200,000  in  building  school- 
houses  and  paying  school  teachers  for  the  children 
who    live    in    the    country    districts    around    her. 
Augusta  has  shown  her  faith  in  the  proposition  that 
every  city  needs  to  be  environed  by  an  intelligent, 
industrious,  and  contented  population. 

"When  it  comes  to  the  teachers  the  same  qualifica-  xho  same 

tions   are  demanded  for  rural   schools  as  for   city  standard  of 

schools.     Upon  the  regular  examination  terms,  and  qualifications 

upon  issuing  of  licenses  to  teach,  an  applicant  does      '  ^'  ^  .^^  , 

"  '^  .  .  rural  schools. 

not  know  whether  he  will  teach  in  the  city  or  out 

of  it,  and  to  many  it  is  a  matter  of  indilference. 
And  I  know  whereof  I  speak  when  I  say  that  there 
are  young  women  graduates  of  normal  colleges  doing 
high-grade  work  in  country  schools  ten  miles  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  city,  and  doing  it  happily  and 
cheerfully.  "We  believe  firmly  in  the  further  prop- 
osition that  a  country  school  is  entitled  to  as  good 
a  teacher  as  a  city  school,  and  that  those  who  live 
in  the  fields  are  as  deserving  of  education  as  those 
who  dwell  beside  the  asphalt.     Carlyle  must  have 


268 


Appendix  B 


Salaries  of 
rural  and  city 
teacliers  to  be 
the  same. 


A  nine  months 
school  year  for 
all  schools. 


School  houses. 


Supervision 
alike  for  rural 
and  city 
schools. 


had  a  country  child  in  his  mind  Avhen  he  said:  'This; 
I  consider  a  great  tragedy:  that  one  soul  should 
remain  in  ignorance  that  had  capacity  for  higher 
things.' 

"The  teachers  are  treated  as  nearly  alike  as  can. 
be.  City  and  country  teachers  are  paid  about  the 
same  salary.  They  get  it  at  the  end  of  every  month, 
and  on  the  same  day.  The  certainty  and  the  regu- 
larity of  a  fixed  compensation  create  a  sense  of 
security,  safety,  and  comfort  for  a  teacher,  and 
accordingly  increase  his  efficiency.  No  teacher  can 
do  his  best  work  when  he  works  at  starvation  rates^ 
is  paid  once  every  three  or  four  months,  and  often  in 
script  that  he  must  discount.  There  is  much  phil- 
osophy and  also  economy  in  the  maxim  that  advises 
us  to  pay  a  public  servant  well  and  watch  him 
closel.y.  So  we  draw  no  distinction  of  locality. 
First-class  work  is  worth  as  much  twenty  miles  from 
town  as  it  is  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

"The  schools  of  the  county  all  run  nine  calendar 
months.  They  all  begin  at  the  same  time  and  close 
at  the  same  time.  During  the  last  year  every  child 
of  the  county,  regardless  of  where  he  lived,  was 
offered  nine  months  of  actual  tuition. 

"So  far  as  schoolhouses  are  concerned,  these  are 
located  in  rural  districts  so  as  to  be  on  an  average 
of  four  miles  apart.  No  child  is  out  of  walking  dis- 
tance of  a  school  open  nine  months  in  the  year  and 
taught  by  a  good  teacher.  These  houses  are  owned 
by  the  board  of  education  and  cost  from  $300  to 
$2,500  each,  according  to  size  and  equipment. 

"One  superintendent  has  charge  of  all  the  teachers 
in  the  county.  .The  same  degree  of  efficiency  that 
should  attend  the  supervision  of  city  schools  is  like- 
wise extended  to  the  country  schools.     An  expert 


Supervision  of  Rural  Schools  269 

teacher  for  all  is  the  theory,  and,  so  far  as  human 
■effort  can  avail,  it  is  carried  out  in  practice.  The 
same  course  of  study  is  prescribed  for  the  pupils, 
and  the  same  course  of  professional  reading  is  re- 
quired of  the  teachers.  The  teachers  of  the  city 
•schools  meet  for  instruction  once  a  week,  the  teachers 
•of  the  country  schools  meet  once  a  month,  and  in 
addition  have  a  two-months'  institute  in  the  summer 
months. ' ' 

In  parts  of  the  country  where  the  town  or  town-  Plan  of  super- 
•ship  is  the  unit  of  government  a  different  plan  will   vision  whea 

have  to  be  pursued.     Here  the  unit  of  school  ad-     '        ^     ^ . 
^  government  is 

ministration  must  be  smaller   than   the  county   but  ^jj^  ^^^^  ^j. 
the  ends  desired  may  be  accomplished  by  combining  township, 
several  towns  for  purposes  of  supervision,   the  ad- 
ministration   of    the    schools    in    all    other    respects 
remaining  as  they  are.     This  has  been  done  effectu- 
ally in  some  of  the  New  England  states. 

The  plan  is  found  in  greatest  efficiency  in  Massa-  The  union 
chusetts  where  it  originated  in  1888.     By  this  law  'listiict  plan  of 

11-  supervision  in 

as  amended  at  various  times  the  school  committees  jyiassachusetts 

of  two  or  more  towns,  each  having  a  valuation  of  less 

than  2y2  millions,  must  form  a  union  for  the  purpose 

of    employing    a    superintendent    of    schools.     The 

union  district  must   consist  of  two  or  more  towns 

having  in  the  aggregate  not  more  than  50  schools 

and  not  less  than  25.     If  the  union  district  consists 

of  more  than  three  towns  the  minimum  limit  of  25 

schools  need  not  be  adhered  to. 

The   union   thus   formed  cannot   be  dissolved   for  Condition  of 

three  years  after  the  date  of  its  formation  except  ™^'"f'""'"« '^ 
•^  .        .         union  district 

by  a  vote  of  the  majority  of  the  towns  constituting  j^j.  9„p,.,.vi. 

the  union;    nor  can  it  be  dissolved  for  the   reason   sion. 

that  the  valuation  of  any  one  of  the  towns  shall  have 

so  increased  as  to  exceed  2i/2  millions,  nor  for  the 


270 


Appendix  B 


The  sdiool 
committees  in 
joint  conven- 
tion to  choose 
the  superin- 
tendent. 


Payment  of 
superinten- 
dent's salary 
by  state  and 
towns. 


The  state 
board  author- 
ized to  form 
and  readjust 
districts. 


reason  that  the  number  of  schools  shall  have  in- 
creased beyond  50,  or  in  a  union  of  less  than  four 
towns,  shall  have  decreased  below  25. 

The  school  committees  of  the  towns  forming  a 
union  must  meet  in  a  joint  convention  to  choose  a 
superintendent  of  schools,  determine  the  relative 
amount  of  service  to  be  performed  by  him  in  each 
town,  fix  his  salary,  apportion  the  amount  thereof  to 
be  paid  by  the  several  towns  and  certify  it  to  each 
town  treasurer. 

For  all  other  pui'poses  the  school  committee  are 
the  agents  of  each  town  of  the  union  district,  that  is, 
the  school  committee  of  any  given  town  determine 
the  duties  of  the  superintendent  for  that  town. 

At  the  close  of  each  year  when  the  fact  is  certified 
to  that  the  towns  constituting  a  union,  in  addition 
to  an  amount  equal  to  the  average  amount  paid  for 
schools  during  the  preceding  three  years,  have  raised 
by  taxation  not  less  than  $750  for  the  support 
of  a  superintendent  of  schools  and  that  a  superin- 
tendent has  been  employed  for  one  year,  the  towns 
receive  from  the  state  $1,250,  three-fifths  of  which 
is  paid  for  the  salary  of  the  superintendent  and  the 
other  two-fifths  to  the  towns  for  the  salaries  of 
teachers. 

The  law  also  provides  that  smaller  towns  may 
unite  with  a  city  or  large  town  to  form  a  union,  but 
in  that  case  the  smaller  towns  only  receive  money 
from  the  state  on  accoimt  of  being  in  a  union. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  is  authorized  to 
form  and  readjust  unions  of  towns  whenever  in  its 
judgment  it  becomes  imperatively  necessary  to 
include  a  town  which  is  otherwise  unable  to  comply 
with  the  law. 

Thus   it  is  that   over  two  hundred  towns  of  the 


vision. 


Supervision  of  Rural  Schools  271 

Commonwealth    are    imder    skilled    supervision    in    O'^er  200 

imion  districts,  while  every  other  town  is  obliged  ^'^'"'"^  under 

. , ,  skilled  super- 

either   alone   or  m  conjunction  with  one   or   more 

towns  to  employ  a  superintendent.     As  the  minimum 

salary  of  the  union  superintendent  is  $1,500  and  as 

the  position  is  a  favorable  one  for  promotion,  good 

service  as  a  rule  is  secured,  and  through  its  means 

the  schools  of  the  towns  of  low  valuation  have  been 

greatly  improved.     This  will  be  even  more  manifest 

when  the  towns  get  the  increased  aid  promised  them 

from  the  state. 


Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools 


Conveyance  of 
pupils  author- 
ized by  law  in 
Massachusetts. 


Extent  and 
growth  of 
school  consoli- 
dation. 


APPENDIX  C. 

In  1869  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  passed  a 
law  authorizing  towns  to  raise  and  appropriate 
money  for  the  conveyance  of  pupils  to  and  from  the 
public  schools.  At  the  same  session  in  which  this 
law  was  passed,  it  was  voted  for  a  second  time  to 
abolish  the  district  system.  There  may  be  no  con- 
nection between  these  two  events,  but  behind  them 
both  was  a  spirit  of  unrest.  The  people  of  the 
country  towns  had  at  last  come  to  realize  that  a  too 
close  adherence  to  the  principle  of  local  self-govern- 
ment in  education  was  working  an  injury  to  the 
smaller  towns,  and  that  the  remedy  lay  in  adopting 
a  policy  by  which  the  town  at  large  would  share  the 
obligations  and  privileges  of  school  control.  The 
rapid  depopulation  of  country  towns  and  the  in- 
creasing inability  of  these  towns  to  support  their 
schools,  helped  to  encourage  the  movement  of  con- 
solidating the  schools,  and  thereby  of  making  the 
rural  schools  to  share  in  some  degree  the  privileges 
of  a  graded  system. 

There  is  no  record  available  to  show  how  much 
the  rural  schools  were  immediately  affected  by  the 
passage  of  the  transportation  law  just  referred  to. 
We  only  know  that  within  twenty  years  after  the  law 
was  passed,  upwards  of  two  hundred  towns  had  to 

*  A  paper  read  before  the  Department  of  School  Adminis- 
tration of  the  National  Educational  Association  in  Boston, 
July   8,   1903. 

(272) 


Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  273 

a  greater  or  less  degree  availed  themselves  of  the 
provisions  of  the  law  and  were  spending  in  the 
aggregate  more  than  $20,000  annually  for  the  con- 
veyance of  pupils.  From  that  time  to  the  present 
the  idea  of  consolidating  the  schools  has  been  con- 
stantly kept  in  mind  by  the  people,  as  shown  by  the 
increased  amount  appropriated  each  year  for  the 
transportation  of  pupils.  The  total  expenditure 
for  this  purpose  in  1901  was  $165,596,  which  ex- 
ceeded the  expenditure  of  the  previous  year  by 
$13,823,  showing  that  the  conveyance  of  pupils  to 
and  from  school  at  public  expense  is  still  going  on. 
The  extent  of  the  practice  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
only  59  of  the  353  towns  and  cities  of  the  Common- 
wealth reported  no  expenditures  for  the  conveyance 
of  pupils  last  year,  and  that  a  good  proportion  of 
these  59  towns  neither  have  rural  schools  nor  are 
likely  to  have  them.  It  should  be  said  that  not  all 
the  money  reported  as  appropriated  for  the  con- 
veyance of  pupils,  was  expended  for  carrying  pupils 
from  closed  schools ;  but  the  sum  expended  for  any 
other  purpose  is  comparatively  small  and  therefore 
the  amounts  given  are  an  approximate  measure  of 
the  extent  to  which  the  schools  have  been  brought 
together. 

No  statistics  have  been  gathered  as  to  the  exact  Ten  per  cent, 
number  of  rural   schools  which  have   been   consoli-  of  rural  schools 
dated  thus  far,  but  a  careful  estimate  indicates  that  '  '"^^"  "'"^' ' 
(^t  least  10%  of  the  so-called  ungraded  schools  have 
been   discontinued  and   that  the   pupils   of  the  dis- 
continued schools  are  being  carried  at  public  expense 
either   to   central    graded    schools  or   to   other  un- 
graded schools. 

There    is   yet    another    way    of   ascertaining   the 
strength  of  the  present  movement  in  the  coiisolida- 


274 


Appendix  C 


Growth  of  sen- 
timent iu  favor 
of  school  con- 
solidation. 


Plans  of  con- 
solidation 
adopted  in 
various  states. 


tion  of  rural  schools,  and  that  is  through  the  testi- 
mony of  persons  who  have  tried  the  plan  or  who 
have  seen  the  effects  of  a  fair  trial  of  it.  In  a  special 
inquiry  made  a  few  years  ago  by  an  agent  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education,  the  fact 
was  brought  out  that  in  a  large  majority  of  the 
places  where  the  experiment  of  consolidation  had 
been  tried  there  was  a  pronounced  sentiment  in  favor 
of  its  continuance.  Several  reasons  were  given  for 
this  opinion,  among  which  were  increase  in  the 
regularity  and  punctuality  of  pupils,  an  improved 
character  of  school  buildings  and  equipment,  en- 
hanced interest  on  the  part  of  pupils  and  a  reduction 
in  the  cost  of  school  maintenance.  The  inquiry 
brought  out  another  fact,  although  it  was  an  inci- 
dental one,  and  that  was  the  evident  need  of  mak- 
ing the  educational  conditions  in  the  State  at  large 
more  nearly  equal,  a  need  which  has  been  recently 
met  in  part  at  least  by  a  substantial  increase  of  the 
State  grant  to  the  more  needy  towns  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

In  view  of  all  these  facts,  it  is  fair  to  conclude 
that  in  Massachusetts  at  least  the  plan  of  the  con- 
solidation of  rural  schools  is  no  longer  an  experi- 
ment, but  is  recognized  in  most  of  the  towns  of  the 
Commonwealth  as  a  helpful  means  of  raising  the 
standard  of  education  in  rural  communities. 

"What  is  true  of  Massachusetts  is  doubtless  true 
of  several  of  the  twenty  states  which  are  reported 
as  having  adopted  in  one  form  or  another  the  plan 
of  consolidation.  In  Iowa  the  plan  which  has  been 
in  operation  for  some  time  is  favored  by  95%  of  the 
County  Superintendents  and  by  the  State  Superin- 
tendent. In  Connecticut  the  law  permitting  the 
closing  of  schools  and  transportation  of  pupils  as 


Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  275 

reported  by  the  State  Superintendent  "has  been 
immensely  advantageous  to  the  State."  In  Ohio 
the  State  Commissioner  is  loud  in  his  commendation 
of  the  plan  which  has  been  in  operation  several 
years.  In  Vermont  over  700  schools  were  closed  in 
a  single  year  and  the  amount  expended  for  the  con- 
veyance of  pupils  more  than  doubled  in  six  years. 
In  New  Hampshire  the  advantages  enumerated  in 
favor  of  discontinuing  small  schools  and  conveying 
the  pupils  are  (1)  economy;  (2)  better  teachers  and 
equipment;  (3)  better  supervision;  (4)  regularity 
of  pupils'  attendance,  and  (5)  a  better  educational 
spirit. 

Commissioner  Harris  in  his  last  report,  in  speaking  views  of  Com- 
of  the  consolidation  of  rural  schools,  says :    ' '  Upon  missioner 
the  success  of  this  movement  rests  the  chief  hope  for  Hams, 
the  improvement  of  the  rural  school.     It  is  fortu- 
nate   that    a    device    which   changes   the   ungraded 
school  into  a  graded  school  involves  a  saving  of  ex- 
pense.    The  improvement  is  well  worth  trial,  even 
were  it  to  double  the  cost  of  the  rural  school,  but 
as  will  be  seen  by  statistics  it  is  secured  with  an 
actual  saving  of  expenditure.     Better  teachers,  more 
sanitary   buildings,    less   personal   exposure   on   the 
part  of  pupils,  better  classification,  and  many  lesser 
advantages  are  commending   this   reform  over  the 
country. ' ' 

Added  to  the  advantages  enumerated  above  Consideratiou 
may  be  mentioned  the  improved  facilities  for  breadth  °^  ^^^'^^ 
and  fineness  of  social  culture.  Life  in  many  rural 
communities  is  circumscribed  by  unavoidable  limita- 
tions which  may  in  part  be  overcome  by  extending 
the  associations  of  the  children  and  so  enriching 
their  lives.  The  dangers,  of  course,  of  a  too  great 
extension  of  associations  must  be  recognized,  but  it 


270 


Appendix  C 


Various  feat- 
ures of  con- 
solidation. 


Why  extended 
legislation  is 
not  desirable. 


is  assumed  that  in  any  plan  of  union,  the  conditions 
of  contact  will  be  carefully  guarded  in  the  interests 
of  all.  Experience  has  shown,  however,  that  the 
dangers  of  certain  kinds  of  contamination  are  far 
greater  in  small  country  schools  than  in  larger 
graded  schools,  where  there  is  protection  in  numbers. 

Being  assured  of  the  possibilities  for  good  in  the 
consolidation  of  rural  schools,  we  have  next  to 
inquire  how  best  it  may  be  accomplished.  Shall 
the  local  school  board  as  in  Massachusetts,  Ohio  and 
New  Jersey,  be  given  full  authority  to  consolidate 
the  schools  and  to  transport  the  pupils,  or  shall  it 
be  subject  to  certain  legal  restrictions,  such  for 
example  as  exist  in  Indiana,  where  the  trustees  of 
a  school  district  may  act  only  upon  petition  of  a 
majority  of  the  voters,  or  as  in  New  Hampshire 
where  only  a  certain  percentage  of  the  school  money 
may  be  expended  for  the  conveyance  of  pupils,  or 
as  in  Rhode  Island  where  schools  only  may  be  closed 
that  have  an  average  membership  of  less  than  twelve, 
or  as  in  Iowa  where  the  boards  are  limited  in  their 
appropriation  for  transportation  to  five  dollars  for 
each  person  of  school  age?  Shall  the  law  governing 
the  transportation  of  pupils  designate  the  minimum 
distance  at  which  pupils  may  be  carried  to 
school  as  in  Vermont  and  Kansas?  Or  shall  the 
towTiship  or  district  be  allowed,  as  in  some  states,  to 
offer  a  mileage  to  pupils  living  at  a  distance  from 
the  school  as  an  alternative  to  free  transportation. 

However  meritorious  some  of  these  features  of 
consolidation  may  be  in  themselves  considered,  it  is 
a  matter  of  grave  doubt  whether  they  should  be 
made  subjects  of  legislation  even  upon  the  basis  of 
suggestion  or  permission.  The  conditions  of  a  single 
state,  even  of  the  smallest  state,  are  so  varied  that 


Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  277 

no  general  policy  or  line  of  action  can  be  defined  by 
law,  without  doing  a  possible  injury  in  special 
localities.  Take  for  example  the  designation  l)y  law 
of  the  minimum  distance  at  which  pupils  may  be 
conveyed  to  school.  Everyone  knows  that  what  is 
a  proper  distance  for  pupils  to  walk  to  school  under 
some  conditions  is  quite  too  great  under  others.  The 
circumstances  of  companionship,  of  the  character 
of  the  roadway  and  of  the  age  and  sex  of  the  pupils 
all  help  to  determine  what  the  maximum  walking 
distance  for  the  pupils  should  be.  The  designation 
of  two  miles  as  a  minimum  distance  for  free  trans- 
portation of  pupils,  as  in  Kansas,  would  work  a 
severe  hardship  in  the  case  of  young  girls  who 
might  be  obliged  under  the  law  to  walk  a  mile  or  a 
mile  and  a  half  over  a  lonely  road,  while  on  the  other 
hand  the  offer  of  free  rides  for  all  pupils  living  over 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  from  the  school,  as  in  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania,  might  have  in  certain  districts 
a  somewhat  demoralizing  influence  upon  healthy 
boys  of  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  age. 

Again  the  designation  of  a  minimum  sum,  as  in  The  designa- 
lowa,  for  the  transportation  of  each  pupil,  must  work  tion  of  a  fixed 
.    .  •  ,    •  -1.  1-       V,        4.1  -,   sum  for  traas- 

an  mjury  in  certain  cases,  quite  as  much  when  the    ^^^.^.^^j^^^  ^^t 

sum  named  is  too  great  as  when  it  is  too  small.     In  desirable, 
the  one  case  there  would  be  the  temptation  to  ex- 
travagance and  excess ;   in  the  other,  there  might  be 
discomfort  and  neglect. 

The  danger  is  especially  manifest  when  school 
boards  find  it  necessary  to  strike  a  bargain  with  the 
carriers.  The  smallness  of  the  amount,  which  the 
driver  or  proprietor  of  a  school  carriage  is  some- 
times forced  to  accept,  is  an  indication  of  the  pos- 
sible meagreness  of  service  rendered  in  the  form  of 
unfit  carriages  and  poor  oversight.     Such  bargain- 


278 


Appendix  C 


Decision  in 

New  York. 


Few  specifica- 
tions in  the 
law  should  be 
made. 


Shall  consolida- 
tion be  univer- 
sal and  obliga- 
tory? 


ing  and  results  are  a  reminder  of  the  old  time  prac- 
tice of  auctioning  off  the  teacher's  board  to  the 
lowest  bidder. 

•  But  perhaps  the  saddest  results  of  sharp  bargain- 
ing come  from  the  practice  followed  in  some  places 
of  paying  a  small  sum  for  each  pupil  or  family 
living  at  a  distance  from  the  school,  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  father  may  or  may  not  perform 
the  service  of  transportation  for  which  he  is  paid. 
In  too  many  cases  it  is  feared  the  children  are 
forced  by  the  parsimony  of  the  father  to  endure 
much  hardship  and  perhaps  loss  of  school  privi- 
leges—a result  of  small  moment  compared  to  the 
pauperizing  influence  of  the  transaction  upon  all 
concerned. 

These  are  some  of  the  conditions  of  the  consolida- 
tion of  schools  which  the  state  may  well  avoid,  at 
least  by  any  specification  of  statute  requirement. 
There  may  be  others  equally  objectionable.  The 
point  that  I  would  urge  is  that  few  specifications  of 
organization  should  be  made  in  the  law  providing 
for  the  consolidation  beyond  the  giving  of  large  and 
responsible  duties  to  local  boards. 

Among  the  first  questions  to  decide  in  considering 
a  possible  scheme  of  legislation  in  relation  to  the 
consolidation  of  schools  is  whether  it  is  best  to  make 
the  plan  universal  and  obligatory.  While  it  must 
be  admitted  that  great  good  has  been  accomplished 
in  the  past  by  the  closing  of  small  schools  and  the 
transportation  of  the  pupils  to  other  schools,  and 
while  the  testimony  seems  to  favor  an  extension  of 
such  a  plan,  it  may  well  be  questioned  whether  it 
is  desirable  for  all  the  rural  schools,  even  for  all  the 
small  rural  schools,  to  be  consolidated. 

In  this  age  of  reform  we  must  not  insist  upon 


Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  279 

making  the  number  of  schools  fewer  only  for  the 
purpose   of  making   the  number  of  pupils  in   each 
school  larger  or  of  decreasing  the  expense  of  school 
maintenance.     The  truth  is,  our  schools  will  be  more  Danger  of 
rather  than   less  expensive  in  the  future  and  they  making  the 
will  also  be  smaller  rather  than  larger.     While  we  schools  too 
are  urging  that   our   graded  schools  of  forty  and    ^^^^' 
fifty  pupils  must  be  reduced  to  twenty  and  thirty 
that  better  individual  work  may  be  done,  we  can 
hardly    agree    with    some    superintendents    in    the 
assumption   that  the   country  imgraded   schools  of 
fifteen  and  twenty,  or  even  ten  pupils,  are  too  small, 
or  that  on  account  of  their  size  alone  they  should  be 
closed.     And  when  we  get  over  the  notion  that  a 
plan  is  good  because  it  is  cheap,  we  shall  not  make 
so   much  of  the   argument   of  economy.     The  only 
or  chief  determining  factor  of  any  plan  of  organiza- 
tion is  efficiency.     Judged  by  that  standard  a  school  Efficiency  the 
of  twelve  or  fifteen   pupils  who  are  under  twelve  determining 
years  of  age  and  who  live  within  a  mile  of  the  school,    ^^**^^- 
may  possibly  do  better  service  for  the  children  than 
could  be  done  under  some  conditions  of  consolida- 
tion. 

In  such  a  comparison  of  conditions,  it  must  be 
understood  that  the  teachers  in  both  classes  of 
schools  are  equally  good.  One  weak  point  in  our 
comparison  of  ungraded  and  graded  schools  has 
been  that  we  have  had  in  mind  a  teacher  for  one 
class  of  schools  who  is  dear  at  six  dollars  a  week,  Teacliors  of 

and  a  teacher  for  the  other  class  who  is  cheap  at  S™\''''J  '"",^  ".^■ 
^,  „  .    .       Lrraded  schools 

six  hundred  a  year.     The  test  of  our  argument  m  g,„,^j,j  ^^, 

favor  of  transportation  will  appear  when  we  think  equally  good. 

of  the  six-dollar  teacher  in  the  central   school,  or 

better   when    we    think    of    the    six-hundred-dollar 

teacher  in  the  small  isolated  one. 


280 


Appendix  C 


Be  it  remembered,  I  am  not  now  arguing  in  favor 
of  the  ungraded  over  the  graded  school,  much  less 
am  I  urging  the  wisdom  of  keeping  the  rural 
schools  as  they  are.  I  am  trying  only  to  show  that 
the  principle  of  consolidation  should  not  be  applied 
to  all  ungraded  schools  and  that  therefore  no  general 
law  should  be  passed  by  any  state  enforcing  its 
No  general  adoption.  The  most  that  I  would  urge  is  the  pas- 
rule  or  law  for  sage  of  a  law  permitting  schools  to  be  closed  and 


any  state. 


Large  dis- 
cretionary 
powers  for 
local  boards. 


the  pupils  conveyed  at  public  expense  whenever,  in 
the  estimation  of  the  township  or  county  board,  it 
is  desirable  to  do  so.  I  would  put  few  restrictions 
upon  the  action  of  this  board,  believing  that  an 
elective  body  to  which  is  given  large  powers  will 
act  wisely  in  the  interests  of  the  people. 

In  the  law  authorizing  boards  to  carry  pupils  to 
and  from  school,  the  provision  may  be  made  that  all 
precautions  shall  be  taken  to  protect  the  pupils  from 
harm  or  injurj'  of  any  kind.  It  might  be  well  also 
to  give  all  persons  who  have  a  grievance  of  any 
kind  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  In  placing  so  much  power  and  latitude 
of  action  in  the  hands  of  the  township  or  county 
boards,  the  assumption  is  that  there  are  no  small 
district  boards,  or  if  there  are  such  boards  that  they 
will  be  abolished.  If  the  state  is  not  yet  ready  to 
abolish  the  district  system  and  must  for  a  time  en- 
dure its  blighting  effects,  the  better  course  perhaps 
is  for  each  district  or  district  board  to  arrange  for 
the  transportation  of  the  pupils  in  case  the  school 
is  closed,  each  board  to  retain  its  organization. 

With  few  requirements  and  restrictions  beyond 
what  I  have  named,  and  with  ample  means  at  its 
command,  the  local  school  board  will  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  generously  meeting  the  educational  needs 


Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools  281 

■and  wants  of  the  more  sparsely  settled  sections.  It 
will  recognize  the  limited  social  and  educational 
opportunities  of  the  children  of  these  sections  and 
and  will  do  all  in  its  power  to  overcome  those  limi- 
tations by  providing  the  best  service  and  the  most 
ample  accommodations  possible. 

Whenever  it  is  seen  to  be  best  for  the  social  and  Ways  and 
educational  well-being  of  the  children  of  a  neigh-  means  of  the 
borhood  to  close  a  school,  the  safest  and  most  con-  conveyance  of 
venient  arrangements  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
pupils  should  be  made.  As  far  as  possible  the  plan 
should  be  followed  of  taking  the  children  from  their 
homes  to  the  central  school.  The  vehicle  provided 
for  the  conveyance  of  the  children  should  be  safe 
and  comfortable  and  the  driver  should  be  carefully 
selected.  So  important  is  the  matter  of  a  proper 
care  and  oversight  of  the  children  in  transit,  that  the 
entire  project  of  consolidation  and  conveyance 
ought  to  depend  upon  whether  a  suitable  person 
may  be  found  for  the  service.  Provision  should 
be  made  for  caring  for  the  pupils  during  the  noon 
intermission,  a  precaution  by  the  way  which  should 
be  taken  in  any  school  where  the  pupils  remain  at 
noon. 

In  some  neighborhoods  and  towns  it  may  seem 
wise  to  apply  the  principle  of  consolidation  only 
to  the  older  pupils,  the  younger  pupils  being  left 
in  small  ungraded  schools.  In  such  cases  the  pos- 
sible increase  of  expense  attending  the  transporta- 
tion of  pupils  should  not  stand  in  the  way  of  effi- 
ciently meeting  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  applies  especially  to  Consolidation 
the  elementary  schools.     The  practice  of  consolida-  of  small  high 
tion  may  be  quite  wisely  followed  in  high  schools.  9«l»<>i>ls. 
Whenever  circumstances  seem  to  make  it  desirable 


282  Appendix  C 

or  feasible  to  close  the  small  high  schools  of  two  or 
more  towns,  and  to  provide  for  the  transportation 
of  pupils  to  a  strong  central  school,  it  should  be 
done.  This  may  be  done  by  placing  the  manage- 
ment of  the  central  school  in  the  hands  of  one  or 
more  representatives  of  each  local  board,  each  board 
to  provide  for  the  transportation  of  its  own  pupils. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  following  points  have  been 
made  clear: 

1.  That  the  advantages  attending  the  consolida- 
tion of  rural  schools  have  been  shown  by  experience 
to  be  so  great  that  the  plan  should  be  extended  to 
all  communities  where  it  can  be  conveniently  carried 
out. 
Summary  of  2.    That  the  consolidation   of   schools   should  not 

conclusions.  be  uniform  or  compulsory  throughout  all  sections 
of  a  state,  but  depend  upon  lojeal  needs  and  condi- 
tions. 

3.  That  in  the  law  providing  for  the  consolida- 
tion of  rural  schools  few  specifications  of  organiza- 
tion should  be  made,  beyond  the  giving  of  large 
and  responsible  duties  to  local  boards. 

4.  That  in  any  plan  of  consolidation,  especial 
attention  should  be  given  to  arrangements  which 
will  insure  the  greatest  degree  of  convenience, 
safety  and  freedom  from  contamination. 


School  Revenues  and  their 
Distribntion 


APPENDIX  D 

Nearly  all  of  the  states  have  permanent  funds 
from  which  an  income  is  derived  for  the  partial 
support  of  the  schools.  This  sum  varies  greatly, 
being  less  than  2%  of  the  total  amount  expended 
in  Massachusetts  and  nearly  30%  in  Texas. 

The  balance  of  the  sum  expended  is  raised  mostly  Differences  of 

by  taxation,  either  state  or  local.     Here  again  there  financial  condi- 

are  great  differences.     In  some  of  the  states  nearly  *'°"^  "^  ^^^ 
^,  ,    ,  ^  -,    T    n  11-  -1    various  states. 

the   whole   amount  expended  tor   schools   is  raised 

by  state  tax,  while  in  others  upwards  of  90%   is 

raised    by    local    tax.     A    comparison    of    statistics 

shows  that  the   increase  in  the   income  from  local 

taxes  in  the  United  States  is  relatively  far  greater 

than  the  increase  in  the  income  from  a  state  tax. 

For  the  21  years  ending  1900-1901  the  increase  in 

state  revenues  for  the  support  of  schools  was  about 

46%,  while  the  local  taxes  for  the  same  purpose  had 

increased  about  65%. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  establish  a  uniform  Report  of  the 

and  equitable  ratio  of  the  state  tax  to  the  local  tax,  committee  of 

yet  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in  some  states  that  ratio  is  ^"^^^""^  "P^"^ 
''  •  11       rnu      school  rcvcn- 

far  too  great  while  in  others  it  is  too  small.     Ihe  ues  and  their 

following  extracts  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee  distribution. 

of   Twelve  appointed   by  the   National   Educational 

Association  bear  upon  this  and  other  points  of  in- 

(283) 


284 


Appendix  D 


Units  of  taxa- 
tion. 


State  aid 
necessary. 


terest  connected  with  school  revenues  and  their  dis- 
tribution. 

Revenue 

^Manifestly  such  areas  or  units  of  taxation  should 
be  created,  or  continued  if  already  in  existence,  as 
will  fully  develop  the  sound  American  principle,  that 
the  whole  wealth  of  the  state  shall  he  made  availahle 
for  educating  all  the  youth  of  the  state.  This  is 
both  right  and  necessary,  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that,  in  the  United  States,  education  is  a  civil,  or 
state,  function,  to  be  supported  like  other  similar 
functions.  What  shall  these  units  of  taxation  be? 
The  subcommittee  names  those  following  as  coming 
under  the  principle  just  stated : 

1.  The  State. — A  liberal  provision  of  funds  from 
the  state  treasury,  to  be  distributed  according  to 
some  rational  method,  is  indispensable,  as  a  rule, 
to  the  maintenance  of  a  good  system  of  state  schools. 
Formerly  the  burden  was  mainly  or  wholly  thrown 
upon  the  local  units.  The  old  Massachusetts  plan 
was  to  throw  upon  the  towns  the  whole  burden  of 
maintaining  their  own  schools.  But  the  greatly 
increased  cost  of  schools,  growing  out  of  enhanced 
salaries,  longer  terms,  and  improved  material  equip- 
ment, long  ago  demonstrated  that  this  plan  must 
be  materially  modified.  Many  local  taxing  units  are 
too  poor  to  carry  such  a  load,  and  they  must  either 
abandon  all  hope  of  good  schools  or  they  must 
receive  assistance  from  the  state  or  social  whole. 


2.  In  all  states,  where,  for  other  local  purposes, 
the  county  is  the  sole  unit  of  taxation,  a  liberal 
county  tax  should  be  levied  for  the  schools.  This 
proposition  applies  especially  to  those  states  where 
the    county   system   of   local    government   prevails. 


School  Revenues  and  their  Distribution       285 

In  states  where,  for  such  purposes,  the  county  is  a  a  county 
large  unit  of  taxation,  it  may  be  wise  to  levy  a  school  tax 
county  school  tax ;  that  circumstances  must  deter-  a^l'^isable  for 
mine.  This  remark  applies  to  the  states  having 
the  mixed  system  of  local  government.  Under  the 
town  system  county  taxation  for  schools  would  be 
out  of  harmony  with  the  social  and  political  tradi- 
tions of  the  people,  and  could  be  accomplished  only 
through  a  change  of  habit;  perhaps  this  end  is 
attainable.  For  the  year  1894-95  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  shows  that  67%  of  the  total  school 
revenues  of  the  country  came  from  local  taxes.  The 
scale  ran  from  1.7  per  cent,  in  North  Carolina  to 
98  ^  %  in  Massachusetts.  Unfortunately  we  have  no 
statistics  showing  from  what  sources  the  local  taxes 
come;  how  much  from  districts,  towns,  and  counties 
respectively.  The  point  must,  however,  be  strongly 
pressed  that  local  supply  for  public  education  should 
be  forthcoming  as  well  as  state  supply.  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  teach  the  people  to  look  altogether, 
or  mainly,  to  the  state  treasury  for  school  mainte- 
nance. They  should  rather  be  taught  to  depend  in 
due  measure  upon  themselves.  It  is  the  confident 
opinion  of  the  subcommittee  that  some  states  are 
now  committing  this  mistake.  ]Many  states  having 
the  county  system  of  local  government  have  in  the 
counties  a  resource  for  school  maintenance  upon 
which  they  have  never  adequatel.y  drawn. 

3.    In   those  states  where  the   town    or  township   Tlicdcsii- 
is  a  large   taxing  unit  for  other  local   purposes,   it  !il»ility  of  local 
should  also  be  made  to  contribute  liberally  to  public  g^^,^|JJ,g" 
education.     This  recommendation   it  would  be  idle 
to  urge  in  most  of  the  southern  and  in  some  of  the 
western  states,  because  the  civil  town  or  township 
does  not  exist,  and  it  would   be   vain    to   iii-gi'   its 


286 


Appendix  D 


creation  for  school  purposes  exclusively.  But  in 
those  states  where  the  town  and  mixed  systems  of 
local  government  exist,  a  township  school  tax  would 
be  congruous  with  the  general  social  and  political 
habits  of  the  people.  The  desirability  of  local  taxa- 
tion for  school  purposes  w^as  urged  under  the  last 
head.  Such  taxation  develops  self-reliance  and 
local  character,  and  tends  to  awaken  and  keep  alive 
the  interest  of  the  people  in  the  schools.  The  town 
was  the  sole  school-taxing  unit  in  old  New  England, 
and  it  is  still  a  prominent,  sometimes  almost  an  ex- 
clusive, one  throughout  the  northern  states.  The 
local  school  taxes  of  New  England  are  town  and 
district  taxes,  and,  taken  together,  they  range  from 
the  minimum  of  69.2  per  cent,  of  the  whole  in  Maine 
to  98.2  in  Massachusetts.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted 
that  the  New  England  states,  as  well  as  some  others, 
now  throw  the  burden  too  heavily  upon  the  towns 
and  districts,  and  that  they  will  find  it  advantageous 
considerably  to  raise  the  ratio  which  state  taxation 
bears  to  local  taxation.  The  other  New  England 
states  will  probably  follow,  sooner  or  later,  the  ex- 
ample of  Maine,  which  raises  nearly  one-third  of  her 
school  money  by  state  taxation.  In  some  states,  no 
doubt,  the  townships  should  carry  a  heavier  weight 
than  at  present,  at  least  as  compared  with  districts; 
at  all  events,  the  township  should  bear  a  reasonable 
part  of  the  cost  of  its  own  education. 


Help  to  be 
given  to  those 
communities 
which  help 
themselves. 


Distribution 
1.  The  assistance  that  the  large  political  and 
social  units  render  to  the  small  ones,  as  the  state  to 
counties,  townships,  and  districts;  or  the  county 
to  townships  and  districts;  or  the  township  to  dis- 
tricts, should  be  made  contingent,  in  part  at  least, 


School  Revenues  and  their  Distribution        287 

upon  what  the  small  units  do  for  themselves.  No 
community,  it  is  believed,  is  so  poor  that  it  cannot 
do  something  towards  educating  its  youth.  Again, 
a  state  educational  system  should  be  so  organized 
and  administered  as  to  stimulate,  and  not  repress, 
local  spirit  and  effort.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  re- 
move the  burdens  of  public  education  so  far  from 
the  people  that  they  forget,  or  tend  to  forget,  their 
existence.  The  principle  here  involved  is  a  vital 
one.  History  shows  conclusively  that  popular  edu- 
cation has  flourished  most  in  those  states  of  our 
Union  where  government  is  most  democratic. 

It  is  difficult,  or  rather  impossible,  to  lay  down  a  No  general 
general  rule  that  shall  govern  the  division  of  taxa-  rule  for  the 
tion  between  the  state  and  the  local  communities.  ^"^^^1™  of 
Two  things  are  to  be  considered.  One  is  the 
political  institutions  that  exist  in  the  state.  If 
government  is  largely  centralized  at  state  capitals 
and  county  seats— that  is  one  thing;  if  it  is  largely 
decentralized,  as  where  the  principle  of  local  self- 
government  is  fully  developed— ^/lai  is  quite  another. 
Por  example,  it  would  be  idle  to  expect  that  the  same 
results  would  obtain  in  the  southern  states  that  are 
found  in  New  England,  or  even  in  that  great  group 
of  states  where  the  mixed  system  of  local  govern- 
ment prevails.  The  governmental  machinery  and 
the  traditions  of  the  people  will  assert  themselves 
in  such  matters.  The  other  factors  to  be  considered 
are  social,  and  particularly  economical  conditions. 

2.    Funds  raised  by  the  large  taxing  units  should  tik;  rich  and 
l)e  distributed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  the  sup-  strong  to  help 
port  of  the  rich  and  strong  to  the  poor  and  weak.  ^^"^J^^'^'"  *"'' 
"The  only  reason  for  taxing  these  units  at  all  for 
general  purposes  is  to  secure  this  end.     On  no  other 


288 


Appendix  D 


principle  can  a  state  school  tax,  or  even  a  county  or 
township  tax,  be  defended,  unless  indeed  the  county 
or  township  is  a  single  district.  The  practical  ques- 
tion is,  How  shall  such  funds  be  distributed  so  as 
not  to  defeat  the  end  in  view? 


Objection  to 
distribution 
according  to 
school  census. 


Distribution 
according  to 
enrollment  not 
advisable. 


A  fixed  sum 
based  upon  an 
arbitrary  unit 
or  units  the 
mostecj[uitable. 


(1)  Distribution  according  to  the  school  census 
or  enumeration  is  open  to  a  serious  objection,  viz.^ 
it  does  not  carry  the  money  where  it  is  most  needed. 
For  example,  two  districts  lie  side  by  side,  one 
having  twenty  and  the  other  forty  youths  of  school 
age ;  the  second  district  draws  twice  as  much  money 
as  the  other,  but  the  cost  of  keeping  up  the  two 
schools  is  practically  the  same.  The  same  would 
be  true  of  two  township  units,  unless  the  schools 
were  consolidated.  The  result  is  that  the  district 
or  township  that  needs  the  most  help  receives  the 
least.  The  rule  is  simple  and  easily  worked,  but 
it  tends  partially  to  defeat  the  end  of  state  or  county 
aid. 

(2)  The  same  objection  holds  against  rules  based 
on  the  school  enrollment  or  on  attendance,  only  with 
somewhat  diminished  force.  Again,  if  the  enroll- 
ment is  followed,  or  attendance  for  a  brief  time, 
there  is  danger  that  some  children  will  go  to  school 
long  enough  to  be  counted,  and  then  drop  out. 
Besides,  such  rules  of  distribution  work  in  favor  of 
the  graded  schools  and  against  the  rural  schools, 
on  account  of  their  larger  enrollment  and  more  regu- 
lar attendance. 

(3)  Taking  everything  into  account,  the  subcom- 
mittee is  inclined  to  think  that  a  fixed  sum  or  sums, 
based  on  an  arbitrary  unit  or  units,  is  most  equitable. 
Examples  of  such  rules  are  furnished  by  the  states 
of   jMassachusetts,   Rhode   Island,   New  York,   New 


School  Revenues  and  their  Distribution        289 

Jersey,  and  California.  The  most  serious  objection 
to  such  rules  is  that  they  are  necessarily  compli- 
cated; some  of  those  given  above  are  quite  com- 
plicated. Then,  if  the  fixed  sum  is  so  much  a 
teacher,  as  in  New  York,  or  so  much  a  district,  as  in 
Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersej^  there  is  a  temptation 
to  the  undue  multiplication  of  schools  or  teachers. 
But  this  point  can  be  safeguarded  by  fixing  statu- 
tory limitations,  as  in  California.  No  rule  can  be 
devised  that  will  not  be  open  to  objection.  The 
subcommittee  does  not  believe  it  possible  to  invent 
any  rule  of  distribution  that  will  well  accomplish 
the  purpose  of  taxing  large  units  for  the  benefit  of 
small  ones,  unless  it  rests  on  the  school  or  the  teacher 
as  a  unit,  with  the  necessary  qualifications.  The 
Massachusetts  rule  is  open  to  the  objection  that  the  Various  objec- 
sehool  needs  of  towns  cannot  always  be  measured  by  tiouscou- 
low  valuations  of  property  assessed  for  taxation,  as  ^"  *-' 
the  number  of  pupils  to  be  educated  is  also  a  factor. 
If  the  method  of  distribution  now  recommended  is 
objected  to  as  an  exclusive  one,  then  it  may  be  sup- 
plemented by  basing  a  part  of  the  appropriation  on 
the  school  census,  enrollment,  or  attendance.  The 
resort  to  the  United  States  census  is  most  objection- 
able, as  great  changes  of  population  occur  in  the 
course  of  ten  years. 


Special  Schools  and  Classes 


APPENDIX  E. 

If,  as  is  generally  done,  the  state  assumes  the 
duty  of  caring  for  extreme  cases  of  the  defective 
classes  such  as  the  blind,  deaf,  and  feeble-minded 
there  will  be  left  a  large  number  of  defectives  of  a 
milder  form  whose  education  ought  to  be  carried  on 
by   the   community  in   which   the    defectives   live.* 

Special  Schools  for  the  Mentally  Weak 

Within  the  past  twenty  years  much  attention  has 

been  given  in  this  country  and  abroad  to  the  care  of 

children  who    are   mentally   weak   but   not   idiotic. 

The   formation  of  special  classes  for  this  class   of 

children   is   made   not   only   for   the   benefit    of  the 

weak-minded  or  mentally   slow  pupils  but  for   the 

relief    of   the    ordinary    schools.     In    Prussia    there 

were  in  1896,  27  cities  maintaining  38  schools  for 

Schools  for  the  ^Yiis  class  of  children.     Such  schools  are  an  integral 
mentally  weak  .      £   .^  ii-  ii  ,  i  .i 

•    T.       •        1  P^rt  01  the  public  school  system  and  are  reported 

m  Prussia  and  f  ^  ^     /  ^ 

various  Ameri-   ill  the  public  school  statistics  of  attendance, 
can  cities.  In    the    United    States    several    cities,    including 

Providence,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Washington, 
have  made  a  good  beginning  in  the  maintenance  of 
schools  for  this  class  of  children.  The  following 
extracts  from  reports  give  some  interesting  facts : 

[Providence,    R.    I.     Extract    from    a    report    of 

Mrs.  Rhoda  L.  Esten,  Supervisor  of  Special  Schools.] 

The  first  school  for  backward  children  in  Prov- 

*  For  a  treatment  of  the  subject  of  ' '  Schools  for  Defectives 

and  Delinquents"  see  Chapter  xi,  page  220. 

(290) 


Special  Schools  and  Classes  291 

idence,  R.  I.,  was  opened  December,  1896 ;  a  second,  Report  of 

December,  1897,  and  a  third  December,  1898.     From  schools  for 

the  organization  of  these  schools  to  June  29,  1900,  iJackward 
.     -i  •        £  ^      £  J.  children  in 

was  a  period  varying  irom  nearly  tour  years  to  a  p.    ., 

year  and  five  months.  During  this  period  82  differ-  r  j 
ent  pupils  have  been  enrolled,  and  of  this  number  13 
have  been  transferred  to  other  schools,  16  have  left 
to  work,  being  beyond  school  age,  3  have  moved  out 
of  the  city,  2  left,  cause  unknown,  1  left,  unim- 
provable, 1  has  died,  1  has  gone  to  a  parochial  school, 
and  45  remain  under  special  instruction. 

The  principles  and  methods  obtaining  in  these 
schools  have  been  as  follows :  As  physical  develop- 
ment must  precede  mental  with  these  children,  daily 
exercises  have  been  given  tending  to  train  their 
muscular  systems  to  a  regular  and  ready  response 
to  commands  given  by  the  teacher,  the  object  of 
this  drill  being  to  strengthen  the  muscles  and  im- 
prove their  co-ordination.  Other  exercises  have 
been  given  that  required  judgment  and  choice  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils,  simple  at  first  but  gradually  in- 
creasing in  difficulty  as  the  pupils  were  able  to  re- 
ceive them.  Care  has  been  taken  to  find  out  their 
likes  and  dislikes  and  so  to  arrange  the  work  that 
each  subject  presented  should,  as  much  as  possible, 
bear  on  something  in  which  they  were  interested, 
thus  encouraging  expression  on  their  part.  Simple 
stories  relating  to  dear  and  familiar  objects,  or 
events  in  real  life,  illustrated,  if  possible,  by  the 
teacher,  have  been  told  them,  at  first  following  them 
simply  to  listen;  afterwards  talks  were  given  upon 
these  stories,  and  by  skillful  questioning  the  pupils 
were  led  to  see  the  beautiful  pictures  or  thoughts 
contained  in  the  story,  or  the  good  or  evil  as  the  case 


292  Appendix  E 

might  be,  and  to  give  expression  to  their  wishes  and 
desires. 

The  above  training  carried  on  patiently  and  per- 
sistently has  been  followed,  except  in  a  few  cases,  by 
a  perceptible  growth  in  their  physical  and  mental 
powers.  In  connection  with  the  above  has  been 
given  the  instruction  of  the  school,  consisting  of  a 
modified  course  of  kindergarten  and  primary  work. 
Care  has  been  taken  to  present  each  step  or  principle 
in  a  clear,  simple  and  interesting  way,  appealing  to 
as  many  senses  as  possible,  also  to  avoid  taking  the 
second  step  until  the  first  has  been  firmly  fixed  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils. 

These  pupils  advance  very  slowly  and  can  bridge 
no  gaps  in  instruction,  hence  patient,  persistent  and 
sympathetic  teachers  are  necessary.  It  has  been 
encouraging  and  gratifying  to  note  that,  with  five 
exceptions  (one  a  ease  of  paralysis,  one  of  epilepsy, 
two  too  old  to  be  improvable,  and  one  too  low  grade), 
all  have  made  some  improvement,  and,  in  many  eases, 
improvement  in  a  marked  degree.  Five  have  been 
returned  to  the  regular  schools  and  are  novr  doing 
regular  work;  seven,  able  to  do  the  grade  work,  have 
been  transferred  to  the  schools  for  special  discipline 
and  instruction,  as,  on  account  of  some  peculiarity 
of  disposition,  they  could  be  better  cared  for  in  these 
schools  than  in  the  regular  schools :  sixteen  are  earn- 
ing their  living,  wholly  or  in  part,  being  over  fifteen 
years  of  age.  Some  have  shown  special  aptitudes, 
which,  owing  to  a  lack  of  proper  accommodation  and 
facilities  in  these  schools,  we  have  been  unable  to 
cultivate  as  a  means  of  support. 

The  discipline  of  these  schools  has  been  of  a  pa- 
rental character.     The  more  capable   of  the  pupils 


Special  Schools  and  Classes  293 

have  been  helpful  in  caring  for  the  less,  and  a  har- 
monious spirit  has  prevailed. 

Although  much  has  been  done  for  these  children, 
yet,  with  better  schoolro'om  accommodations,  with 
better  facilities  for  physical  and  manual  training, 
and  with  teachers  experienced  in  this  work,  better 
and  more  far-reaching  results  could  be  obtained. 

Educational    Centres 

In  various  cities  there  has  been  an  extended  use  of 
the  school  buildings  in  so  called  "Educational 
Centres."  These  are  really  a  kind  of  evening  school, 
differing  from  that  school  only  in  the  fact  that  its 
exercises  are  of  a  practical  nature.  The  character  of 
these  "centres"  may  be  judged  from  the  following 
extract  from  a  report  made  by  the  Committee  on 
extended  use  of  school  buildings  in  Boston  when  five 
centres  were  in  operation  during  the  winter  of  1903- 
1904.  The  report  refers  to  the  first  term  of  one  of 
the  centres : 

"The   Centre   began  with   a   registration   of   810.   Report  of  ed- 
From  the  first  night  until  the  school  closed  the  regis-   ucational 
tration  was  constantly  gaining,  until  at  the  end  of  centres  in 
the  twelve  weeks'  term  it  had  reached  4,384. 

"The  week  was  divided  into  two  parts,  one  set 
of  people  coming  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays,  and  the 
other  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays.  In  this 
way  the  opening  registration  of  810  gave  a  maximum 
possible  attendance  of  405  each  night,  except  per- 
haps for  a  few  who  came  every  evening  for  the  sake 
of  taking  two  courses. 

"Within  a  few  weeks  after  opening,  the  building 
was  filled  to  the  limit  of  its  capacity,  there  being 
present  a  thousand  members  each  evening,  this, 
under  the  dual  system  of  classes,  meaning  that  two 


294  Appendix  E 

thousand  people  of  the  neighborhood  were  attending 
the  Centre  every  week. 

"The  Centre  began  with  a  single  class  in  dress- 
making, but  the  facilities 'had  to  be  increased  im- 
mediately, and  toward  the  close  four  separate  dress- 
making classes  were  maintained,  the  rooms  being 
crowded  every  evening.  In  fact,  it  has  not  been 
an  unusual  thing  to  go  into  one  of  the  dressmaking 
rooms  and  find  the  seating  capacity  of  fifty-six  ex- 
hausted, so  that  some  of  the  members  of  the  class 
were  standing. 

"In  like  manner,  it  was  necessary  to  increase  the 
instruction  in  millinery  until  at  the  end  there  were 
four  classes. 

"The  same  increase  was  noted  in  the  class  in  em- 
broidery. 

"In  cookery,  the  number  given  instruction  was 
only  limited  by  the  capacity  of  the  school  kitchen. 
One  night  a  week  this  room  was  devoted  to  a  large 
and  enthusiastic  class  of  married  women. 

"A  successful  class  in  bookkeeping  for  men  and 
women  was  conducted. 

"For  the  first  time,  at  least  in  the  history  of  our 
Boston  schools,  except  for  the  class  started  a  short 
time  previously  in  the  Lowell  Centre,  classes  in- 
tended expressly  to  fit  for  civil  service  examinations 
were  opened.  These  proved  very  successful  and 
popular,  and  were  joined  by  some  two  hundred  men. 

"In  stenography  there  were  two  elementary 
classes  and  one  speed  class,  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  young  men  and  women  working  in  com- 
mercial establishments  during  the  day. 

"Four  carpentry  classes  for  men  were  conducted 
in  the  two   manual  training  rooms.     Two  of  these 


Special  Schools  and  Classes  295 

classes  were  for  beginners  and  two  for  advanced 
pupils. 

"A  successful  class  in  mechanical  drawing  and 
drafting,  made  up  of  men  drawn  from  a  variety  of 
trades,  met  three  times  a  week." 

Several  additional  features  were  included  in  the 
work  of  the  following  season,  such  as  steam  en- 
gineering conducted  by  the  superintendent  of  the 
steam-engineering  department  of  the  Institute  of 
Technology ;  a  reading  room  furnished  by  the  aid  of 
the  Boston  Public  Library;  study  rooms  for  the 
pupils  of  the  two  upper  grades  of  the  grammar 
schools  of  the  district ;  a  gymnasium  for  classes  of 
young  men  and  women;  lectures  upon  literature, 
geology  and  civil  government. 

Of  the  general  success  of  these  Centres  the  com- 
mittee above  referred  to  says : 

''One  of  the  characteristics  of  these  Educational 
Centres  which  has  been  most  remarked  upon  by 
many  of  the  hundreds  of  visitors  since  they  were 
opened  is  the  general  atmosphere  of  friendliness 
which  pervades  all  the  rooms.  The  people  of  the 
neighborhood  seem  to  realize  that  not  only  are  the 
intellectual  advantages  of  the  school  at  their  dis- 
posal, but  beyond  this  there  is  a  warm  and  friendly 
welcome  awaiting  each  person  who  enters  the  build- 
ing. In  the  rooms  where  conversation  is  possible, 
such  as  the  dressmaking  and  millinery  rooms,  for 
example,  the  members  of  the  class  carry  on  a  neigh- 
borly chat  with  each  other  whenever  the  teacher  is 
not  addressing  the  class  as  a  whole.  It  is  pleasant, 
when  the  closing  hour  comes,  to  see  the  members  of 
the  school  reluctant  to  leave  the  building,  lingering 
about  the  rooms  and  halls  conversing  with  each 
other.     Not    onlv    has    this    atmosphere    been    com- 


296  Appendix  E 

merited  upon  repeated^  by  visitors,  but  the  same 
thing  has  been  indicated  in  many  other  ways.  One 
young  woman  recently  made  the  remark  to  the 
principal  of  one  of  the  Centres  that  she  had  been 
living  in  the  locality  more  than  a  year,  supporting 
herself  by  working  in  the  city  during  the  daytime 
and  living  by  herself  in  a  small  room,  and  up  to  the 
time  the  Centre  opened  she  had  been  leading  a 
lonely  life  without  a  friend,  but  as  a  result  of  attend- 
ing one  of  the  millinery  classes  at  the  Centre  she  now 
had  many  good  friends.  Numberless  other  interest- 
ing incidents  connected  with  the  work  of  the  Centres 
might  be  related  if  there  were  space.  For  instance, 
the  principal  at  one  of  the  Centres  found  that  two 
of  the  young  women  who  had  attended  his  dressmak- 
ing class  were  married  in  dresses  which  they  had 
learned  to  make,  and  in  fact  had  made,  at  the  Centre. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  young  ladies  also 
took  the  course  in  cooking.  The  resident  physicians, 
clergymen,  and  others  having  occasion  to  be  familiar 
with  the  lives  of  the  people  have  repeatedly  spoken 
of  the  good  effect  -which  they  saw  resulting  from  the 
establishment  of  a  Centre  in  their  locality. ' ' 

Vacation   Schools 

Popularity  of         Probably    no    feature    of    educational    work    has 

vacation  met  with  a  more  surprising  response  on  the  part  of 

schools.  ^jjg  people  than  the  vacation  school.     When  it  was 

first  alluded  to  as  a  possibility,  many  doubted  the 

wisdom  of  even  offering  it,  while  all  supposed  that 

as  attendance  upon  it  must  be  voluntary  its  benefits 

would  be  shared  by  but  few.     But  in  the  opening  of 

every  vacation  school  whose  programme   consisted 

largely   of    industrial    and    physical    exercises,    the 

response  has  been  greater  than  was  expected.     In 


Special  Schools  and  Classes  297 

some  cases  there  was  an  actual  waiting  list.  Thus 
vacation  schools  of  various  sizes  and  kinds  have  been 
maintained  for  several  seasons  in  Chicago,  New 
York,  Boston,  Hartford,  Providence  and  many  other 
places. 

The  following  lines  have  been  followed  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  emphasis  in  the  various  vacation 
schools : 

1.  Manual  or  industrial  training,  including  work  Kinds  of  work 
in  wood,  raffia,  cane,  and  metal ;    sewing,  hammock  done  in  vaca- 
making,  cooking,  gardening,  etc.  ^^^^  schools. 

2.  Nature  study,  including  the  naming  of  the 
common  plants  and  trees. 

3.  Drawing  and  painting,  including  mechanical 
and  free  hand  exercises,  study  of  pictures,  etc. 

4.  Physical  exercises,  including  gymnastics, 
games,  and  plays. 

5.  Music. 

6.  Excursions. 

7.  Kindergarten  exercises. 

8.  Common  branches. 


School  Hygiene 


Two  classes  of 
hygienic  con- 
ditions. 


APPENDIX  F. 

[The  greater  portion  of  these  notes  are  taken 
from  the  author's  special  report  made  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts State  Board  of  Education  in  1901.] 

Hygienic  Conditions.  The  hygienic  conditions  of 
schools  may  be  separated  into  two  classes,  one  class 
consisting  of  those  for  which  the  public  authorities 
are  responsible,  and  the  other  class  consisting  of 
those  for  Which  the  parents  or  pupils  are  responsible. 
Among  the  former  class  of  conditions  are:  (1)  the 
location  of  buildings,  (2)  construction  and  plan  of 
buildings,  (3)  school  equipment,  (4)  composition 
and  adjustment  of  the  school  programme.  The  con- 
ditions for  which  the  parents  or  pupils  are  re- 
sponsible are  those  which  relate  to  (1)  home  require- 
ments, (2)  social  diversions,  (3)  food  and  rest,  (4) 
personal  habits  of  pupils.  These  conditions  will  be 
treated  briefly  in  order. 

Location  of  School  Buildings.  The  ground  upon 
which  the  schoolhouse  is  placed  should  be  high,  and 

*The  figures  in  parentheses  refer  to  the  numbered  titles  of 
reference  books  and  articles  which  are  printed  at  the  close  of 
this  report.  For  a  more  full  bibliography  of  the  subjects  con- 
nected with  school  hygiene,  see  Kotelmann  's  School  Hygiene, 
pp.  353-382 ;  also  Journal  of  Proceedings  of  the  National 
Educational  Association  for  1898,  pp.  506-523.  The  last- 
named  compilation,  made  by  Dr.  Biirnham,  consists  of  436 
titles  of  books  and  articles  published  in  this  country  and 
Europe. 

(298) 


School  Hygiene  299 

the  soil  gravelly  or  sandy,  so  as  to  allow  good  drain-  Desirable 
age  and  a  dry  cellar.     Clayey  soil  and  soil  in  which  features  of 
there  is  refuse  or  organic  matter  are  to  be  avoided.    ^^^*"^^' 
The  building  should  not  be  located  near  a  swamp  or 
standing  water,  or  any  place  whose  odors  are  offen- 
sive.    It  should  be  so  retired  that  the  school  shall 
not  be  disturbed  by  noises  from  without,  and  so  far 
removed  from  the  boundaries  of  the  lot  upon  which 
it  is  placed  that  no  building  upon  an  adjoining  lot 
can  shut   out   the   light  from   the  schoolrooms.     In 
choosing  the  lot  upon  which  the  building  is  to  be 
placed,   let  there  be   generous  provision   made   for 
play  and  exercise  grounds,  and,  if  possible,  room  for 
shrubs  and  flowers. 

Schoolrooms  and  Corridors.  The  size  of  the  school-  Size  of  school 
room  should  be  determined  by  considerations  of  lO'^Qis. 
health  as  well  as  of  convenience.  Authorities  differ 
as  to  the  amount  of  space  needed,  probably  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  amount  of  fresh  air  breathed  de- 
pends less  upon  the  size  of  the  room  than  upon  the 
wa}^  it  is  ventilated.  It  is  safe,  however,  to  assume 
that,  on  account  of  proper  ventilation,  a  minimum 
of  16  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  250  cubic  feet  of 
air  space  per  pupil  should  be  required.* 

The  pupils'  eyesight  should  also  l)e  considered  in 
determining  the  size  of  the  room.  If,  as  is  assumed 
by  some  authorities,  ordinary  writing  upon  a  black- 
board cannot  be  easily  read  beyond  80  feet,  this 
distance  or  a  little  more  should  be  the  limit  of  the 
length  of  the  room.  The  width  of  the  room  should 
be  limited  to  the  extent  at  which  satisfactory  light- 
ing can  be  had  from  the  windows  on  the  side  of  the 

*  These  amounts  are  somewhat  larger  than  the  requiremeuts 
in  several  European  States,  as  quoted  by  Dr.  Buruham  (4, 
p.   2.5). 


300 


Appendix  F 


Corridors  and 
cloak  rooms. 


Play  and  exer- 
cise rooms 


Facilities  for 
washing  and 
bathing. 


Mateiial  and 
place  for 
blackboards. 


room.  This  distance  has  been  generally  regarded  to> 
be  24  feet.  For  purposes  of  ventilation  and  lighting, 
the  room  should  not  be  less  than  12  feet,  and  need 
not  be  more  than  13  or  14  feet  high. 

Ample  provision  should  be  made  for  corridors 
and  cloak  rooms,  placed  in  such  relation  to  air  and 
sunlight  as  to  provide  for  good  ventilation.  Under 
no  consideration  should  the  outer  clothing  be  hung- 
in  the  schoolroom,  as  is  sometimes  the  case. 

Every  school  building  should  have  one  or  more 
rooms  that  can  be  used  for  play  in  cold  or  stormy 
weather,  and  for  physical  exercises  at  any  time. 
These  rPoms  should  be  well  ventilated,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, exposed  to  the  sun  a  portion  of  the  day.  They 
should  be  so  situated  as  to  be  easily  accessible  from 
all  rooms,  and  so  constructed  that  noisy  exercises 
shall  not  disturb  the  schools  when  they  are  in  session. 

In  the  construction  of  school  buildings,  provision 
should  always  be  made  for  the  pupils  to  wash  their 
faces  and  hands,  and  whenever  it  can  be  done,  facili- 
ties for  plunge  or  shower  baths  should  be  provided. 
This  is  especially  important  in  schools  whose  pupils 
have  not  bathing  facilities  at  home.f 

The  best  material  for  wall  blackboards  is  natural 
slate.  They  should  be  built  into  the  walls  at  such 
parts  of  the  room  as  will  be  most  convenient  for  use 
and  least  harmful  to  the  eyes.  As  a  rule,  they 
should  not  be  placed  where  the  reflection  of  light  is 
such  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  pupils  at  their  seats 
to  see  what  is  Avritten  upon  them,  and  in  no  case 
should  they  be  placed  between  windoAvs. 


t  Baths  have  been  introduced  in  a  number  of  American  and 
European  schools.  The  reports  of  their  use  are  very  favorable 
to  their  continuance.  For  reports  from  Germany,  see  (4,  p. 
38;   11,  p.   470). 


School  Hygiene  ,  301 

The  most  Difficult  Problem 
Ventilation  and  Heating.  By  far  the  most  impor- 
tant as  well  as  the  most  difficult  problem  in  the  con- 
struction of  schoolhouses  is  the  method  of  their 
ventilation.  The  problem  consists  in  keeping  the 
air  of  schoolrooms  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  con- 
dition of  pure  outdoor  air,  which  consists  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen  in  certain  proportions,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water.  After  it 
has  been  through  the  lungs,  the  air  is  changed  by  an  Character  of 
increase  of  about  4  per  cent,  in  volume  of  carbonic  "Vitiated  air. 
acid  gas  and  by  a  decrease  of  about  the  same 
quantity  of  oxygen.  There  is  also  found  in  vitiated 
air  more  or  Jess  of  organic  matter  and  an  increased 
amount  of  watery  vapor.  Authorities  differ  as  to 
the  causes  of  the  effects  of  breathing  what  is  called 
*'bad  air,"  some  averring  that  the  organic  matter 
from  the  skin  and  lungs  is  the  cause  of  the  deleter- 
ious effect,  and  some  that  the  dangers  lie  not  from 
the  existence  of  any  poison  in  the  respired  air,  but 
from  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid  and  a  deficiency 
of  oxygen.  But  all  agree,  for  one  reason  or  another, 
that  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  is  the 
measure  of  its  impurity.* 

The  relative  amount  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  is  x^.^ts  of  purity 
ascertained  in  various  ways,  the  simplest  test  being  of  air. 
made  by  means  of  Wolpert's  air  tester,  which  con- 
sists of  a  test  tube  filled  with  lime  water,  and  a  rub- 
ber bulb  with  an  attached  glass  tube  for  pumping  the 
air  to  be  tested  into  the  lime  water.  The  numl)er  of 
bulbfuls  of  air  used  in  the  test  to  make  the  lime 

*  For  statements  as  to  the  cause  of  contamination  in  breath- 
ing respired  air  and  for  making  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide 
in  the  air  the  measure  of  its  impurity,  see  (1,  p.  69;  3,  p.  34; 
12,   p.   124;   27,  pp.   18,  23;    20,  p.  741). 


302  Appendix  F 

water  opaque,  indicates,  as  shown  by  the  table,  the 
vitiated  character  of  the  air.  This  instrument,  at 
best,  can  give  but  an  approximate  test  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  air,  but  sufficient,  it  may  be,  if  found  very 
bad,  to  warrant  an  accurate  analysis  or  to  provide 
better  means  of  ventilation. f 

The  quality  of  air  may  also  be  inferentially  deter- 
mined by  estimating  the  amount  of  fresh  air  that  is 
forced  into  or  out  of  a  room  in  a  given  time.  This 
may  be  done  by  means  of  an  anemometer  placed  in 
the  current.  The  rate  per  second  or  minute  multi- 
plied by  the  number  of  superficial  feet  in  the  opening 
will  give  the  volume,  which  may  be  compared  with 
the  amount  needed. 

Authorities  are  agreed  that  air  containing  10  parts 
of  carbonic  acid  to  10,000  is  unfit  to  breathe,  and  that 
for  healthy  respiration  air  should  contain  not  more 
than  7  parts  of  such  gas  to  10,000.  Measured  by 
such  a  standard,  the  air  of  most  schoolrooms  not 
provided  with  modern  methods  of  ventilation  would 
be  regarded  as  bad  or  very  bad.* 

The  amount  of  air  required  for  each  child  varies 
from  1,800  to  2,500  cubic  feet  per  hour.  If  there  is 
for  each  child  the  amount  of  space  previously  indi- 

t  Sold  by  Codman  &  Shnrtleff,  Boston,  Mass.  More  ac- 
curate testers  are  those  of  Pettenkoflfer  and  of  Smith-Lunge, 
both  of  which  are  fully  described  by  Kotelmann  (1,  p.  73). 
The  method , given  by  Dr.  Cohen  is  described  by  Professor 
Burrage  (3,  p.  37).  Other  methods  of  testing  the  air  are 
described  by  Eichards  and  Woodman   (27,  pp.   33,  35). 

*  Many  tests  made  of  the  air  in  schoolrooms  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe  show  most  alarming  results.  From  20  to  50 
parts  of  carbonic  acid  gas  to  10,000  have  been  frequently 
found  in  schoolrooms,  and  sometimes  the  proportion  has  been 
found  to  be  70  and  even  90  to  10,000.  For  a  record  of  these 
tests,    see    (4,    p.    27;    2,    p.    85). 


School  Hygiene  303 

eated  (16  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  250  cubic  Ventilation 
feet  of  air  space),  the  air  should  be  changed  every  needed. 
10  or  12  minutes, — that  is,  each  pupil  should  be  pro- 
vided v^ith  at  least  30  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per 
minute.*  This  amount  of  air,  having  a  temperature 
of  not  less  than  60°,  may  be  introduced  and  dis- 
tributed by  properly  located  flues  without  producing 
dangerous  draughts. 

When  the   outside   temperature   is   above   60°   F.,   Ventilation  by 
ventilation    is    easily    effected    by    means    of    open  windows  and 
windows  and  doors.     To  avoid  dangerous  draughts  ''^^^■^• 
of  the  incoming  air  of  a  low  temperature,  boards  are 
sometimes   placed   under    the    lower  sashes   of   the 
windows,  so  as  to  allow  the  current  of  air  to  pass 
upward   and   away  from   the  heads  of  the  pupils. 
To  effect  the  same  end,  the  upper  segments  of  win- 
dows are  made  to  turn  upon  hinges.     Open  doors 
into  large  well-ventilated  hallways  have  also  been 
found  useful  means  of  ventilation. 

To  effect  ventilation  that  is  at  all  adequate   in  Two  methods 
weather  having  a   temperature    below  50°    F.,   the  of  artificial 
natural  currents  of  air  should  be  supplemented  by   ventilation, 
artificial  means,  either  by  heated  flues  which  eject 
the  air  from  the  room  or  by  fans  which  force  air 
into  it.     By  the  former  method,  called  the  vacuum 
or  gravity  system,  fresh  air  takes  the  place  of  the 
air  which  is  forced  by  gravity  from  the  room  through 
the  heated  flues.     By  the  latter  method,  known  as 
the  plenum  system,  the  forced  current  of  inflowing 
fresh   air    drives   the   vitiated    air    from    the   room 
through  flues  provided  for  the  purpose. 

In  regulating  the  introduction  of  air,  great  care 

*  This  amount  agrees  with  Dr.  Billings 's  estimate,  and  is 
not  far  from  the  carefully  wrought  conclusions  of  De  Chau- 
mont,  based  upon  the  investigations  of  Pettenkofifer  (4,  p.  24). 


304 


Appendix  F 


Source  of 
supply  of  air. 


Size  of  venti- 
lating shafts. 


Situation  of 
flues. 


should  be  taken  respecting  the  source  of  supply. 
The  air  should  not  be  taken  from  the  basement,  but 
from  the  outside,  where  there  are  no  offensive  odors 
or  dust.  Some  means  of  furnishing  moisture  to  the 
air  should  be  employed. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  the  size,  situation 
and  number  of  ventilating  shafts.  The  size  of  the 
inlets  must  be  large  enough  to  supply  fresh  air 
sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  air  that  is  taken 
out,  and  the  outlets  must  be  of  sufficient  size  to 
make  the  desired  change  of  air* 

The  flues  should  be  so  situated  as  to  provide  for 
the  fullest  circulation  of  air  in  the  room.  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  good  if  not  the  best  results 
are  attained  by  placing  the  inlet  in  the  middle  or 
upper  part  of  the  wall  and  the  outlet  near  the  floor 
upon  the  same  side.  It  is  also  advisable  to  have 
two  or  more  outlets,  so  as  to  avoid  draughts  oc- 
casioned by  rapidly  moving  currents. f 

In  rooms  where  the  warm  air  enters  onlv  in  the 


*  Prof essor  Clark  (6,  p.  66)  estimates  that  a  shaft  20  feet 
high,  with  a  difference  in  temperature  of  20°,  should  have  a 
sectional  area  of  5^  square  feet  to  carry  off  48,000  cubic 
feet  per  hour.  This  estimate  is  made  upon  the  basis  of 
supplying  1,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  for  each  pupil.  To 
supply  2,000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  the  sectional  area  of  the 
outlet  should  be  10|  square  feet. 

t  The  matter  of  location  of  inlets  and  outlets  is  discussed 
fully  by  Professor  Burrage  (3,  p.  43)  ;  also  by  Mr.  Carpenter 
(7,  p.  55),  who  says  that  much  depends  u})on  existing  con- 
ditions. He  says:  "It  has  been  proved  practically  that  with 
rooms  of  about  the  proportion  shown  in  diagram  [15:32] 
good  residts  in  the  diffusion  of  heat  and  air  are  obtained 
by  introducing  the  air  at  a  point  two  thirds  of  the  distance 
from  floor  to  ceiling  and  near  one  corner,  and  locating  the 
register  for  discharge  of  air  on  the  same  side  of  the  room 
but   near   the  floor   and  near   the  lower   diagonal   corner." 


School  Hygiene  305 

upper  portion,  and  where  there  is  no  direct  radia-   Direct  radia- 
tion, extra  provision  should  be  made  for  warming  ^ioQ  in  balls, 
feet    and   drying   clothing.     This   may   be   done    by 
placing  radiators   or  registers   at   the   floor  of  the 
halls,   where  heating  rather  than  ventilation  is  the 
main  desideratum. 

An  open  fire  is  a  poor  means  of  heating,  but  an  The  open  fire- 
excellent     means     of    ventilation.     I\Iany     modern    l'''^^*^  ^^  ^ 

school  buildings  have  fireplaces  in  every  room,  in   "'^^'^f  ^. 

„  .  ^  J  J  ventilation, 

most  of  which  no  fire  is  ever  made.     Doubtless  the 

unused  fireplace  may  serve  as  a  means  of  ventila- 
tion, but  not  nearly  so  efficiently  as  a  fireplace  with 
even  a  little  fire  in  it.  Apart  from  possible  dangers 
of  drafts,  there  is  probably  no  better  means  of 
carrying  away  the  vitiated  air  than  an  open  fire. 
The  excuse  usually  offered  for  not  having  a  fire  in 
the  fireplace  is  entirely  insufficient.  There  is  no 
good  system  of  ventilation  that  does  not  require  care, 
trouble  and  expense. 

This  may  be  a  good  place  to  say  that  skill  and  Management  of 
good  judgment  are  necessary  in  looking  after  any  'M'Pi"'atus. 
appliance  designed  for  ventilation.  It  should  not 
be  intrusted,  for  the  sake  of  economy  or  any  other 
reason,  to  ignorant  or  unreliable  persons,  since 
ordinarily  as  much  depends  upon  the  way  in  which 
a  system  of  ventilation  is  managed  as  upon  the 
system  itself.  Nor  should  a  knowledge  of  the  system 
used  be  confined  to  the  engineer  or  janitor.  For 
the  sake  of  needed  co-operation,  the  superintendent 
of  schools  and  the  teachers— especially  the  principal 
—of  the  school  in  which  the  system  is  used  ought  to 
know  the  construction  of  the  system  and  the  best   ,, 

J'  r('(iuent 

method  of  working  it.  su.cp  of  winds 

In  the  best  systems  of  ventilation  flusliing  of  the   ihrou^'li  looma 
schoolroom  by  natural  air  currents  is  necessary  to   necessary. 


300  Appendix  F 

carry  off  the  organic  dust  and  condensed  vapors 
which  cannot  be  fully  taken  away  by  the  ventilat- 
ing flues.  Upon  this  point  Professor  Clark  says 
(6,  p.  63)  :  "Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  aeration 
by  means  of  open  windows.  Artificial  ventilation 
though  required  for  changing  the  air  when  the 
windows  are  necessarily  closed,  is  insufficient,  even 
under  the  best  circumstances,  unless  the  room  is 
from  time  to  time  thoroughly  refreshed  and  purified 
by  the  sweep  of  the  free  winds  through  all  its  win- 
dows widely  opened.  Such  an  atmospheric  washing 
should  be  secured  three  or  four  times  daily  in  all 
weathers;  at  recess,  particularly,  it  should  be  in- 
sisted on,  banishing  teachers  and  pupils  from  the 
room  meanwhile,  if  necessary. " 
Direct  radia-  In  the  choice  of  means  of  heating  schoolrooms,  the 

tion  not  desir-     necessity  of  bringing  into  them  the  needed  supply 
^'  of  warmed  fresh  air  must  be  kept  in  mind.     The 

direct  radiation  from  stoves  and  from  steam  and  hot 
water  pipes  does  not  accomplish  this  end,  and  is 
therefore  not  a  desirable  means  of  heating.  This 
statement  applies  only  to  schoolrooms  where  there 
is  not  an  adequate  supply  of  warmed  air  by  furnace 
or  indirect  radiation.  Heating  by  direct  radiation 
alone  may  be  permitted  in  dressing  rooms  and  halls, 
but  not  in  schoolrooms.  If,  however,  air  from  with- 
out is  introduced  behind  the  stoves  and  radiators, 
some  of  the  objections  are  removed.  The  loss  of 
heat  by  supplying  air  in  this  way  is  shown  by  Profes- 
sor Woodbridge  (8,  p.  19).  The  method  of  supply- 
ing fresh  air  in  rooms  where  stoves  are  used  and 
of  constructing  outgoing  air  ducts  will  be  referred 
Hot  water  as  a  to  later.  Hot  water  as  a  means  of  heating  is  to  be 
means  o  ea  -  pj.gfgpj.ed  to  steam,  for  the  reason  that  in  moderate 
weather  the  heat   can  be  better   regulated  by  hot 


School  Hygiene  307 

water  than  by  steam,  and  that  in  very  cold  weather 

the    air    is    not    so    likely    to    be    overheated    or 

"burned."* 

The  objections  nrg-ed  against  heating  by  the  hot-  Objections  to 

air  furnace  are:    (1)  An  unequal  distribution  of  heat  ^*^^"^"" 

,1  .  i        p       1  1     -1  T  T   .       ,       furnaces, 

m  the  various  parts  oi  a  large  building  and  m  the 

upper  and  lower  parts  of  each  room ;  (2)  the  pro- 
duction and  dissemination  of  offensive  gases;  (3) 
the  occasioning  of  dryness  of  the  air,  already  re- 
ferred to.  Makers  of  modern  furnaces  have  sought 
to  overcome  all  these  objections,  and  in  some  meas- 
ure have  been  successful,  so  far  as  small  buildings 
are  concerned ;  but  for  large  buildings  the  hot-air 
furnace  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

Perhaps  the  most  unsatisfactory  means  of  heating  Jacketed 
schoolrooms  is  the  ordinary  wood  or  coal  stove,—   stoves  for  heat- 

the  means  most  generally  employed  in  countrv  dis-  |"^^"    venti- 

.  ^  x-     ^  V  lation, 

tricts.     To  avoid  the  unequal  distribution  of  heat  in 

rooms  heated  in  this  way  and  to  promote  in  some 
degree  ventilation,  the  stove  should  be  enclosed  by 
a  metallic  jacket,  the  enclosed  chamber  being  con- 
nected with  the  outer  air  by  means  of  a  shaft  of 
sufficient  size  to  admit  the  needed  amount  of  air. 
In  addition  to  this,  flues  should  be  so  constructed  as 
to  carry  away  the  vitiated  air  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  keep  the  air  of  the  room  in  good  condition.  To 
avoid  radiation  from  overheated  surfaces,  two 
stoves  should  be  provided  for  use  on  very  cold  days. 
A  more  detailed  description  of  this  method  of  heat- 
ing and  ventilation  will  be  given  later. 

By  far  the  best  method  of  heating  schoolrooms  is  I'nlircct  radia- 
by   indirect  radiation,   by    which   coils   of  pipe   are 

*  The  burning  or  dry  sensation,  as  explained  by  Kotelmann 
(1,  p.  113),  is  frequently  due  to  the  scorching  of  dust 
particles   which    come   in   contact   with   overheated    surfaces. 


308 


Appendix  F 


The  fan 
system. 


The  best  ven- 
tilation of  one 
and  two  room 
school  houses. 


heated  in  chambers,  from  which  the  warmed  air  is 
taken  into  the  rooms.  This  is  done  either  by  the 
plenum  or  by  the  gravity  system,  already  referred 
to.  On  many  accounts  the  plenum  system  is  to  be 
preferred,  by  which  the  warm  air  is  forced  into  the 
rooms  by  fans  propelled  either  by  electric  or  water 
motors  or  by  steam.  But  in  the  opinion  of  good 
judges  this  plan  works  best  when  the  foul-air  flues 
are  heated  so  as  to  draw  the  air  from  the  rooms  or 
when  these  flues  are  connected  with  exhaust  fans. 
The  only  objection  to  the  fan  system  is  the  first  cost. 
When  the  system  is  once  established,  the  cost  of 
maintaining  it  is  said  to  be  less  than  the  cost  of 
maintaining  a  simple  gravity  system.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  when  the  steam  used  in  operating  the 
fans  is  used  for  heating  the  rooms. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  in  detail  the  plans  of 
heating  and  ventilating  by  the  method  just  de- 
scribed. It  is  used  now  in  most  of  the  larger  modern 
buildings,  and  its  merit  may  be  easily  tested  by 
actual  observation.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  found 
in  ventilating  and  heating  small  one  and  two  room 
country  schoolhouses.  Respecting  this  difficulty 
Dr.  Edward  E.  Shaw  says  (29,  pp.  106-108)  :  "In 
order  to  ventilate  the  rural  schoolhouse,  the  stove 
should  be  placed  in  one  corner  of  the  room  and  near 
the  chimney.  The  stove  should  be  enclosed  by  a 
sheet-iron  jacket,  leaving  a  distance  of  from  18  inches 
to  2  feet  between  the  stdve  and  the  inside  of  the 
jacket.  The  jacket  should  be  about  6  feet  high,  and 
should  extend  to  the  floor.  The  opening  in  the 
jacket  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  stove  with 
fuel  should  be  as  narrow  as  feasible.  A  cold  air 
duct  should  be  constructed  to  lead  from  the  outside 
of  the  building  underneath  the  floor,  and  to  open 


School  Hygiene  309 

beneath  the  stove,  so  that  pure,  fresh  air  will  flow 
in,  be  warmed  by  the  stove,  and  rise  to  the  ceiling. 

"The  point  to  be  secured  in  the  heating  and 
ventilating  of  the  rural  schoolhouse  is  the  quick 
and  uniform  distribution  of  the  heat  to  all  parts  of 
the  room.  .  In  the  opposite  side  of  the  room  from  the 
stove,  a  tin  or  galvanized-iron  ventilating  duct  should 
be  constructed,  oblong  in  shape,  having  its  cross- 
section  dimensions  12  x  6  inches.  The  open  end  of 
this  duet  should  be  within  1  foot  of  the  floor.  The 
flue  should  extend  to  the  ceiling  and  run  along  the 
ceiling  to  the  chimney.  There  should  not  be  any 
sharp  angle  in  this  duet,  but  a  curved  bend  where 
the  upright  section  unites  with  that  which  runs  along 
the  ceiling.  The  ventilating  duct  should  discharge 
into 'a  large  chimney  flue  at  least  14x20  inches  of 
cross-section  area.  In  the  middle  of  this  flue  there 
should  run  a  sheet-iron  pipe  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  stove.  The  heat 
radiated  from  this  pipe  when  there  is  a  brisk  Are 
in  the  stove  will  cause  a  strong  draft  in  the  flue 
and  draw  the  air  out  of  the  schoolroom  through  the 
ventilating  duct. 

"The  plan  already  described  is  the  simplest  and 
most  economical  for  etfecting  some  degree  of  ventila- 
tion in  rural  schoolhouses.  A  better  plan  would  be 
to  place  the  stove  in  one  corner  of  the  room  sur- 
rounded by  a  sheet-iron  jacket,  and  to  construct  a 
flue  opening  underneath  the  stove  and  connecting 
with  the  outer  air,  as  has  already  been  recommended. 
Three  openings  might  then  be  made  in  the  floor,  one 
in  the  corner  opposite  that  in  which  the  stove  is 
placed,  and  the  other  two  on  the  sides  of  the  room 
equally  distant  from  the  stove.  These  outlets 
through  the  floor,  which  are  to  be  fitted  with  regis- 


310  Appendix  F 

ters,  should  have  tin  ducts  running  from  them  and 
uniting  into  one  duct  just  before  opening  into  the 
ventilating  flue,  which  is  to  be  constructed  as  already 
described.     This  would   secure  a   more    even  with- 
drawal of  the  vitiated  air  from  the  schoolroom,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  more  equal  distribution  of  heat 
than  by  the  employment  of  a  single  duct. ' ' 
Requirements         The  standard  of  requirements  made  by  the  state 
in  Massacliu-      inspectors  of  public  buildings  in  Massachusetts  is 
^®**^  shown  by  the  following  statement  which  is  sent  to 

all  the  school  committees  of  the  state : 

"In  the  ventilation  of  school  buildings  the  many 
hundred  examinations  made  by  the  inspectors  of  this 
department  have  shown  that  the  following  require- 
ments can  be  easily  complied  with: 

"1.  That  the  apparatus  will,  with  proper  manage- 
ment, heat  all  the  rooms,  including  the  corridors,  to 
70°  F.  in  any  weather. 

"2.  That,  with  the  rooms  at  70°  and  a  difference 
of  not  less  than  40°  between  the  temperature  of  the 
outside  air  and  that  of  the  air  entering  the  room  at 
the  warm-air  inlet,  the  apparatus  will  supply  at 
least  30  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  for  each  scholar 
accommodated  in  the  rooms. 

"3.  That  such  supply  of  air  will  so  circulate  in 
the  rooms  that  no  uncomfortable  draught  will  be  felt, 
and  that  the  difference  in  temperature  between  any 
two  points  on  the  breathing  plane  in  the  occupied 
portion  of  a  room  will  not  exceed  3°. 

"4.  That  vitiated  air  in  amount  equal  to  the 
supply  from  the  inlets  will  be  removed  through 
the  ventiducts. 

"5.  That  the  sanitary  appliances  will  be  so  venti- 
lated that  no  odors  therefrom  will  be  perceived  in 
any  portion  of  the  building. 


School  Hygiene  311 

"To  secure  the  approval  of  this  department  of 
plans  showing  methods  or  systems  of  heating  and 
ventilation,  the  above  requirements  must  be  guaran- 
teed in  the  specifications  accompanying  the  plans." 

Lighting 

The  two  chief  considerations  in  reference  to  light- 
ing schoolrooms  are   the    amount   of  light   and  the 
direction  from  which  it  enters  the  room.     In  several 
European  states  the  ratio  of  window  surface  to  floor  Ratio  of  win- 
surface  in  schoolrooms  is  fixed  by  law,  at  1  to  6  when  'iow  surface  to 
the  building  stands  free,  and  1  to  4  when  the  light  ^o^^'  surface, 
is  obstructed  by  neighboring  buildings   (1,  p.  47). 
In  Prussia  the  least  amount  required  is  1  to  5— a 
ratio  now  generally  accepted  as  the  least  amount  of 
lighting    surface    schoolrooms    should    have.     This 
amount  should  be  increased  if  the  light  is  obstructed 
by  high  buildings  or  trees. 

Many  authorities  agree  with  Dr.  Cohn,  that  there  The  minimum 
cannot  be  too  much  light  in  a  schoolroom  (12,  p.  99).  of  light  needed. 
The  test  of  brightness  certainly  should  be  applied  to 
places  farthest  away  from  the  windows,  and  upon 
cloudy  days.  The  standard  usually  recognized  in 
Germany  (4,  p.  34)  is  that  of  a  minimum  brightness 
on  dull  days  of  10  normal  metre-candles,  i.e.,  of  10 
spermaceti  candles,  1  metre  distant,  each  candle 
weighing  ^    of  a  pound. 

Where  photometric  measurements  cannot  be  made, 
Von  Hoffman's  method  of  testing  the  amount  of 
light  might  be  followed.  He  says  that  the  light  is 
insufficient  when  a  normal  eye  cannot  read  the  Snel- 
len type  No.  6  at  a  distance  of  6  metres  (4,  p.  34). 
Other  tests  suggested  by  Dr.  Burnham  are  to  ascer- 
tain if  every  pupil  can  see  some  portion  of  the  sky, 
or  if  every  normially  sighted  pupil  can,  upon  a  cloudy 


312 


Appendix  F 


Distance  of 
seats  from 
windows. 


which  light 
should  enter 
the  room. 


day,  read  Diamond  type  at  a  distance  of  30  centi- 
metres.* Dr  Biirnham  further  says:  ''The  light  in 
schoolrooms  is  very  apt  to  be  deficient,  because 
officials  do  not  realize  that  light  diminishes,  not  as 
the  distance,  but  as  the  square  of  the  distance."'  It 
seems  reasonable  to  place  20  feet  as  the  greatest 
distance  from  which  any  pupil  should  be  seated  from 
a  well-lighted  window. 

As  to  the  direction  from  which  the  light  should 
enter  the  schoolroom,  authorities  are  divided.  Pro- 
fessor Forster,  Dr.  Young  (2,  p.  261)  and  others  urge 
that  schoolrooms  be  so  situated  that  no  direct  rays 
Direction  from  of  the  sun  can  enter  them ;  while  Dr.  Cohn,  Dr. 
Burgerstein  (12,  p.  11)  and  many  others  advocate 
a  southern  exposure  for  the  rooms.  Perhaps  a  com- 
promise may  be  made  by  having  the  room  exposed 
to  the  sun's  rays  a  small  portion  of  the  forenoon  or 
afternoon.  Dr.  Kotelmann  (1,  p.  36)  has  this  view, 
and  says  a  southeast  exposure  is  to  be  preferred. 

Again,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  direction  of  light  in  respect  to  the  pupils  at 
their  seats.  The  weight  of  opinion,  however,  seems 
to  favor  admitting  the  light  from  the  left  of  the 
pupils,  or  from  the  left  and  rear,  provided  the  former 
light  is  the  stronger.  Nearly  all  authorities  are 
agreed  that  lighting  from  both  the  left  and  right 
sides  is  not  advisable.  In  no  case  should  the  light 
come  to  the  pupils  from  the  front.  The  windows 
should  consist  of  large  panes  of  glass  of  good  quality. 
They  should  extend  as  near  as  possible  to  the  top  of 
of  the  room,  and  be  placed  close  together. 

Venetian  blindsf  and  curtains  of  a  dark  color  are 


[*  This  footnote  is  printed  in  Diamond  type. 

fProfessor  Forster    (3,   p.   55)    and  Dr.  Kotelmann    (1,   p. 
50)  both  condemn  the  use  of  Venetian  blinds  in  schoolrooms. 


School  Hygiene  313 

not  favored,  on  account  of  their  obstruction  to  light. 
Fixtures  should  be  used  which  will  permit  the  cur-  Kind  of 
tain  to  be  raised  from  the  bottom,  or  so  that  it  may  curtains 
be  raised  or  lowered  from  the  middle  of  the  window,  "<^^f^^*^- 
as  circumstances  require.     It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  upper  part  of  the  window  is  much 
better  for  lighting  purposes  than  the  lower,  and  that 
it  should  not  be  covered  by  a  curtain  unless  to  shut 
out  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

In  rooms  that  are  insufficiently  lighted,  the  ceilings 
and  walls  should  be  light,  but  not  dazzling.     A  light 
gray  or  green  color  for  the  walls  is  recommended  by 
good  authorities.     The   light   of  such  rooms  is  in-  The  use  of 
creased  and  diffused  by  the  use  of  prisms  and  reflec-  P"^™^  ^^" 
tors.     Hennig's    daylight   reflector    is   described   by  the  rff    '      of 
Kotelmann  (1,  p.  46)  and  recommended  by  him.     In  lio-ht. 
our    own    country   the   products    of    the   American 
Luxfer  Prism  Company  of  Chicago  and  New  York 
have  been  in  successful  use  in  stores,  factories  and 
schoolrooms.     From    tests    recently    made    in    the 
Massachusetts   Institute   of  Technology,   under  the 
direction  of  Mr.   Charles  L.  Norton,  the  following 
conclusions  were  reached,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Edward 
Atkinson : 

^' First. — "Windows  of  the  customary  height,  but 
of  one-third  the  width  commonly  adopted,  when 
glazed  with  ribbed  or  suitable  prismatic  glass,  will 
give  on  a  bright  day  as  much  effective  light  as  the 
full  width  of  window  glazed  with  plane  glass;  on  a 
cloudy  day,  or  in  a  position  where  the  light  from  the 
sky  is  derived  from  a  limited  area,  even  a  greater 
ratio. 

^^  Second. — Windows  of  the  common  type  now  in 

Dr.  Kotelmann  estimates  that  only   .6   to  1.5  per  cent,  of  the 
daylight  passes  through   the  slats   inclined  45°. 


314  Appendix  F 

mills,  workshops  or  schoolrooms,  now  fitted  with 
plane  glass,  if  reglazed  in  the  upper  half  only  ^vith 
ribbed  or  prismatic  glass,  will  yield  on  a  bright  day 
more  than  fifty  per  cent,  excess  of  effective  light, 
or  on  dark  days  a  larger  ratio.  If  reglazed  down  to 
but  not  including  the  lower  panes  (in  which  we  ad- 
vise plane  glass),  the  increase  in  effective  light  will 
be  much  greater." 

Water-Closets  and  Outbuildings 
In  places  where  there  are  systems  of  sewerage  and 
water  supply,  there  ought  not  to  be  any  difficult}^  in 
keeping  the  water-closets  in  a  perfectly  good  con- 
dition.    The  problem  of  preventing  an  offensive  and 
unsanitary  condition  of   the   premises  is  especially 
difficult  in  places  where  there  are  no  water  system  for 
flushing  and  no  sewers  to  carry  off  the  refuse  matter. 
TheJ^danger  of    Where  there  is  a  water  supply  without  sewers,  the 
cesspools.  temptation  is  to   empty   the   refuse  into   cesspools. 

But  this  should  not  be  done.  The  cesspool  Professor 
Burrage  regards  as  "one  of  the  greatest  of  sanitary 
evils"  (3,  p.  60),  and  as  "more  dangerous  than  the 
badly  constructed  sewer." 

Where  circumstances  do  not  permit  the  erection 
of  water-closets,  or  the  ventilating,  drying  or  fire 
closets  (3,  p.  61)  which  are  now  successfully  used 
in  many  places,  separate  sanitaries  must  be  provided, 
and  cared  for  in  ways  which  will  prevent  the  dangers 
of  infection  or  the  annoyance  of  bad  odors.  To 
Location  and  accomplish  these  ends,  (1)  the  privies  should  be 
management_of  placed  at  a  good  distance  from  the  school  building; 

qo  rji  fo  T»ipo 

(2)  the  privy  vault  should  be  entirely  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  the  catch-basin  being  constructed 
so  as  not  to  leak;  (3)  provision  should  be  made  for 
the  storage  of  dry  earth  or  sifted  coal  ashes,  and 


School  Hygiene  315" 

for  sprinkling  the  catch-basin  daily  with  this  mate- 
rial. "Nothing  less  commendable"  than  these  ac- 
commodations for  sanitaries,  says  Dr.  Young  (2,  p. 
253),  "should  be  tolerated." 

Water  Supply 

The  purity  of  water  supply  for  schools  is  no  less 
important  from  the  standpoint  of  health  than  that 
of  the  air  supply.  Under  the  laws  of  the  state  there 
seems  to  be  ample  protection  from  the  harm  in  the 
case  of  public  water  supplies.  The  greatest  danger  The  use  of 
lies  from  the  use  of  water  taken  from  wells  in  remote  ^^'"^^'^  ^" 
country  sections,  and  especially  wells  that  are  used  ^"""  '^  o-vmis. 
only  a  portion  of  the  year.  Respecting  these  sources 
of  water  supply  for  schools  Dr.  Prank  Wells  says 
(26,  p.  17)  :  "During  the  vacations  no  water  is  taken 
from  them,  and  hence  it  becomes  stagnant.  In  the 
autumn,  when  the  term  commences,  the  water  in  this 
condition  is  drunk  by  the  scholars,  thereby,  either 
alone  or  in  connection  with  the  unsanitary  condition 
of  the  surroundings,  tending  to  produce  sickness, 
which  may  be  wrongly  attributed  to  the  houses  in 
which  the  children  dwell." 

Unfortunately,  the  purity  of  water,  unlike  that  of 
air,  cannot  be  ascertained  by  simple  tests  (27,  p.  80). 
The  only  safe  course  for  school  authorities  appears   Examination  of 
to  be  to  examine  carefully  the  surrounding  condi-  <<"i<l'tions 
tions,  nearness  to  privy  vaults,  cesspool,  drains,  etc.,  *  ^^^^^   ^' 
and,  if  there  are  possible  occasions  of  contamination, 
to  call  the  aid  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  or  an 
expert  analyst. 

Baths 
The    great   use   of  baths    in   coiniection    with   the 
schools  is  becoming  to  be  recognized,  both  on  accoimt 
of  the  means  they  afford  for  cleanliness  and  for  tlie 


316 


Appendix  F 


SchooH)atlis  ill 
Germany. 


Baths  in  the 
Paul  Revere 
school,  Boston. 


habit  which  frequent  hathing'  tends  to  form. 
School  baths  have  been  introduced  in  several  cities 
of  Germany  with  great  success.  Dr.  Burnham 
describes  briefly  the  plan  pursued  in  these  cities,  and 
further  says  (4,  p.  38)  :  "The  reports  from  those 
schools  where  baths  have  have  been  introduced  are 
uniformly  favorable.  The  bathing  is  usually  volun- 
tary, but  it  is  generally  approved  by  the  parents. 
Some  of  the  children  have  a  sort  of  hydrophobia, 
at  first,  but  generally  after  a  little  time  enjoy  the 
bath.  In  Gottingen,  after  a  half  year,  ninety  per 
cent,  of  the  pupils  voluntarily  shared  in  the  school 
baths.  The  children  return  to  their  study  refreshed 
in  mind  and  body.  There  is  an  improvement  in  the 
air  of  the  schoolroom.  It  is  maintained  that  the 
bath  has  an  educating  effect  upon  the  children,  in 
giving  them  a  sense  of  cleanliness.  Much  stress  is 
placed  also  upon  the  educating  influence  that  the 
introduction  of  school  baths  has  upon  the  parents, 
in  making  them  care  for  the  children's  undercloth- 
ing and  the  like.  In  many  cases  great  improvement 
in  the  health  of  children  has  resulted  from  the  habit 
of  regular  bathing." 

In  Boston,  one  of  the  schools— the  Paul  Revere  — 
is  supplied  with  baths  whose  use  is  thus  described 
by  the  principal,  Mr.  Button:  "Since  the  baths  have 
.been  opened,  an  average  of  175  pupils  have  had  a 
bath  every  school  day.  This  gives  every  pupil  in 
the  school  over  8  years  of  age  an  opportunity  to 
bathe  once  a  week,  and  95%  improve  the  privilege. 
The  baths  are  in  charge  of  a  matron ;  each  class  is 
assigned  a  time  to  bathe,  as  they  would  for  a  recita- 
tion. 

' '  The  scheme  works  smoothly  and  beautifully,  and 
is  a  blessing  to  the  children  physically,  mentally  and 


School  Hygiene  317 

morally,  and  a  blessing  to  the  teachers,  too.  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that,  if  a  child  bathes  once  a  week 
from  8  to  14  years  of  age,  he  will  always  seek  to  be 
clean  and  wholesome. 

"The  city  furnishes  towels  and  soap.  The 
average  expense  thus  far,  per  bath,  has  been  about 
31/2  cents.  I  think  and  trust  that  the  time  is  at  hand 
when  all  of  our  schools  will  be  equipped  not  only 
with  shower  baths  but  with  swimming  pools.  As 
educational  agents  they  cannot  be  surpassed." 

The  expense  given  above  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  school  baths  in  Germany,  which  are 
vStated  to  be  about  one-forth  of  a  cent  apiece.  In 
Germany,  however,  "the  pupils  bathe  by  classes,  the 
bathing  is  carefully  supervised,  pupils  come  in  divi- 
sions like  soldiers  and  follow  each  other  every  five 
minutes,  and  thus  a  large  number  of  pupils  bathe  in 
a  very  short  time"  (4,  p.  38). 

Furniture  and  Furnishings 
Investigations  have  clearly  shown  that  there  is  a 
close  relation  between  certain  phj^sical  deformities 
and  wrong  habits  of  sitting  occasioned  by  contin- 
uously constrained  and  unhygienic  positions  in 
school.  As  a  consequence,  the  importance  of  provid-  DcsimhU' 
iug  proper'  desks  and  seats  in  the  interests  of  health  features  of 
is  now  generally  recognized.  The  width,  heigth 
and  shape  of  the  seat,  the  shape,  height  and  slope  of 
the  desk,  the  distance  between  the  seat  and  the  desk 
and  the  distance  between  the  height  of  the  seat  and 
that  of  the  desk,  are  considerations  which  have  re- 
ceived the  closest  attention  of  specialists  bolli  in 
Europe  and  this  country.* 

*  For  the  detailed  records  of  iuvcstigations  and  ('onclii.siona 
of  specialists  see   (12,   p.  55;    1,  p.   128;   2,   p.   270). 


desks  and 
seats. 


of  seat. 


from  seat  to 
desk. 


318  Appendix  F 

The  following-  statements  may  be   said  to  fairly 

summarize  their  conclusions : 

Height  of  The  height  of  the  desk  should  be  the  distance  from 

desk  and  size      the  sole  of  the  foot  to  the  knee,  equal,  according  to 

careful  estimates,  from  -jy  to  -f  of  the  height  of  the 

pupil.     The  width  of  the  seat  should  be  about  %  of 

the  length  of  the  uper  leg  or  \  of  the  height  of  the 

pupil.     It  should  be  sloped   gently  backward,  and 

its  edge  should  be  rounded.     The  back  rest  should 

be  such  as  to  give  support  to  the  back  under  the 

shoulders  and  above  the  hip  bones.     The  distance 

The  distance      from  the  front  edge  of  the  seat  to  a  perpendicular 

dropped  from  the  rear  edge  of  the  desk  should  be 

for  writing  a  minus  distance :    that  is,  the  edge  of 

the  desk  should  overlap  the  seat  from  one  to  two 

inches.      For  all  other  purposes  the  distance  should 

be  zero,  but  never  plus. 

Relative  height       These  conditions  imply  that  either  the  top  of  the 

of  desk  and        (^esk  or  the  seat  must  be  movable.     The  difference 

or  perpendicular  distance  from  the  seat  to  the  upper 

edge  of  the  desk  should  be  such  that  the  pupil  sitting 

erect  can  easily  place  his  forearms  upon  the  desk 

without     changing     the     natural     position     of     the 

shoulders.     Some  authorities  say  that  this  distance 

should  be  about    \    the  height  of  the  pupil.     The 

slope  of  the  desk  should  vary  from  that  of  about 

80°  for  writing  to  that  of  about  45°  for  reading, 

which  again  implies  a  movable  desk  top. 

Movable  desk         The  desirability  of  having  some  arrangement  by 
tops  and  seats,    ^j^-^j^   p^^p- ^^  ^^^  g^^. j^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^.^ 

seats  and  stand  in  recitation  is  an  added  reason  for 
providing  more  room  between  the  desk  and  the  seat 
than  is  permitted  by  the  above-mentioned  measure- 
ments. Many  inventions  have  been  made  to  supply 
these  needs,  as  well  as  to  secure  a  varying  slope  of 


School  Hygiene  319 

the  desk  top  ;*  but,  apart  from  the  common-  hinged 
seat,  few  of  them  have  as"  yet  been  adopted  by  Ameri- 
can school  furniture  makers.  Where  the  small  seat 
is  used  there  is  less  need  of  movable  desk  tops  and 
seats  than  where  the  seat  is  long  and  is  of  uniform 
width,  as  it  is  generally  in  Germany. 

The  minute  studies  from  which  the  above  general 
statements  are  derived  were  made  with  reference 
mainly  to  stationary  desks  and  seats.  A  large  num- 
ber of  measurements  and  estimates  have  been  made, 
so  as  to  ascertain  the  average  size  of  the  bodies  of 
pupils  for  pupils  of  a  given  age.  While  the  tables 
embodying  these,  estimates  are  of  great  value  to 
school  authorities  who  desire  to  know  the  approxi- 
mate sizes  of  desks  and  seats  needed,  they  are  of 
comparatively  little  value  to  those  who  secure  for 
the  schools  adjustable  seats  and  desks.     Such  furni-  Adjustable 

ture  will  come  more  and  more  into  use,  in  spite  of  ^^^^^ 

uGsks. 
its  increased  cost  over  the  stationary  kind,  as  the 

necessity   of   a   constant   adjustment   of  the  school 

seat  and  desk  to  the  corresponding  measurements 

of  the  child's  body  becomes  obvious. 

While  the  measurements  and  directions  above 
given  are  of  special  value  to  the  authorities  who  are 
selecting  and  putting  down  stationary  desks  and 
seats,  they  will  also  be  found  useful  to  those  who  are 
setting  up  and  adapting  to  pupils  the  adjustable 
desks  and  seats.  Some  of  these  seats  are  constructed 
with  reference  to  changing  not  only  the  height  of  the 
desks  and  seats  but  also  the  slope  of  the  desk  top. 

Of  school  furniture,  other  than  desks  and  seats, 

*  A  full  description  of  these  inventions  in  Germany  is 
given  by  Burgerstein  (12,  p.  75)  and  by  Kotelmann  (1,  p. 
147).  An  interesting  essay  upon  school  seats,  by  Drs.  Brad- 
ford  and  Stone,  is  printed  in   (13,  p.  611). 


320  Appendix  F 

which  should  be  selected  on  hygienic  grounds,  may 
be  mentioned  movable  blackboards,  crayons,  erasers, 
outline  maps  and  drinking  cups. 

The  material  to  be  preferred  for  a  movable  black- 
board is  natural  slate,  both  because  it  can  be  erased 
with  a  moist  cloth  or  eraser,  and  thus  reduce  the 
amount  of  dust  raised,  and  also  because  it  has  not  a 
Blackboards  shiny  surface.  Artificial  applications  that  have  not 
and  crayons.  these  objectionable  features  may  be  used.  The  dust- 
less  crayons  are  likely  to  raise  less  dust  than  the 
ordinary  crayons,  and  for  that  reason  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred ;  but  when  they  are  so  hard  as  to  give  faint 
lines,  they  should  be  used  sparingly.  Crayon 
holders,  especially  for  colored  crayons,  arg  recom- 
mended. 

Outline  maps  should  be  selected  that  have  clearly 
drawn  lines,  and  should  be  placed  for  use  upon  map 
stands  in  a  good  light  near  to  the  pupils  using  them. 
Charts  and  Care  also  should  be  taken  to  select  only  those  books 
text-books.  for  pupils'  use  which  have  clear  and  well-defined 
print,  and  whose  pages  have  a  plain,  dull  surface. 
This  is  especially  important  in  the  selection  of  text- 
books, or  those  books  which  are  in  constant  use  by 
the  pupils.  The  best  authorities  advise  for  young 
children  books  printed  from  "Pica"  or  "Great 
Primer"  type,  and  condemn,  for  pupils  of  any  grade, 
the  use  of  books  printed  from  type  smaller  than 
"Long  Primer." 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  these  types: — 

Long  Primer 
Pica 

Great  Primer 

IMuch   attention   has   been    given   of   late    to   the 
dangers   of  the   common   use  of   drinking  cups   in 


School  Hygiene  321 

school.  To  avoid  all  possible  dangers  of  infection, 
either  individual  cups  or  the  drinking  fountain  Drinking  cups 
should  be  used.  By  the  latter  plan,  pupils  are  en-  ^^^  fountain, 
abled  to  drink  from  a  constantly  flowing  jet  of 
water  rising  three  or  four  inches,  thus  avoiding  all 
possible  danger  of  contamination.  The  fountains 
are  used  with  success  in  Boston  (Roxbury),  and 
Webster,  Mass.,  Plainfield,  Asbury  Park,  and  "West- 
field,  N.  J. 

The  common  use  of  penholders  and  pencils  by  the  Penholders  and 
pupils,  though  less  objectionable  than  the  common  pencils, 
use  of  drinking  cups,  is  nevertheless  to  be  avoided 
as  far  as  possible.  Each  pupil  of  the  schools  of 
Springfield,  Mass.,  is  provided  with  his  own  pen- 
holder and  pencil  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  as 
well  as  with  a  drinking  cup. 

The  Care  of  School  Buildings  and  Appliances 
What  has  been  said  of  the  importance,  from  a 
hygienic  point  of  view,  of  care  in  connection  with 
ventilation,  may  be  said  with  equal  force  of  the 
school  building  in  general.  It  should  not  be  neces- 
sary to  say  that  the  schoolrooms  should  be  kept  as 
free  from  dirt  and  dust  as  good  homes,  and  yet  the 
fact  is  quite  forgotten  by  many  persons  who  have 
the  management  of  schools. 

In  the   first  place,  the  thorough   cleaning  wliich 
every    good   housekeeper   deems   necessary   for  her 
home  at  least  once  a  year  should  be  done  for  the 
schoolhouse.     A   few   days   before   the    end    of   the  The  wasliing, 
summer  vacation   the  floors  should   be   thoroughly  sweeping  and 
scrubbed  and  all  other  parts  should  be  washed  and  '  "'^*"'J^' " 
Wiped,     The  windows  should  be  washed  irequentiy." 

*  Eiilenherg   and   Bach    (11,   p.    544)    say   tliat   the   windows 
should   be   washed   every   month.     When   windows   are   washed, 


322 


Appendix  F 


Oiled  floors. 


The  care  of 
water  closets 
and  urinals. 


During  the  school  year  the  floors  in  all  parts 
should  be  swept,  or,  if  oiled,  carefully  wiped  three 
times  a  week,  the  more  exposed  parts  being  brushed 
up  daily.  The  rooms  should  be  carefully  dusted 
daily  with  a  damp  cloth.  The  sweeping  and  dust- 
ing should  be  done  at  such  a  time  and  in  such  a  way 
as  to  leave  no  floating  dust  in  the  room  while  the 
schpol  is  in  session.  The  best  time  and  way  of 
sweeping  is  after  school  at  night,  with  open  windows, 
the  floors  being  sprinkled  with  damp  sawdust. 

One  method  of  allaying  the  dust  in  schoolrooms, 
to  which  much  attention  has  been  given  recently,  is 
that  of  oiling  the  floors.  If  the  material  is  wisely 
selected  and  carefully  put  on,  great  good  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view  will  result.  But  the  floors 
so  treated  must  be  wiped  off  frequently,  to  accom- 
plish fully  the  desired  results.  Annoyance  from 
oiled  floors  on  account  of  their  soiling  dresses  will  be 
slight,  if  too  much  oil  is  not  used  and  the  floor  is 
frequently  cleaned.* 

The  sanitaries  need  careful  attention  daily. 
Water-closets  and  urinals  should  be  thoroughly 
flushed  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  all  traces  of 
uncleanness  be  wiped  away.  Occasionally  simple 
disinfectants  and  deodorizers,  such  as  superphos- 
phate and  lime,  should  be  sprinkled  in  the  vaults 
and  about  the  urinals:    but  it  should  be  understood 


as  they  frequently  are,  only  in  July,  they  are  likely  to  be- 
come dusty  before  the  school  begins  in  September.  The 
better  time  for  washing  the  windows  is  September  or  October. 

*  The  desirability  of  keeping  the  schoolrooms  free  from 
dust,  especially  those  rooms  in  which  gymnastic  exercises  are 
given,  is  shown  by  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  dangers  of 
breathing  dust,  written  by  Dr.  Schmidt  and  quoted  by  Dr. 
Young   (2,  p.   225). 


School  Hygiene  323 

that  nothing  of  this  kind  can  take  the  place  of  a 
liberal  application  of  Avater.  In  places  Avhere  there 
is  no  plumbing,  corrosive  sublimate,  bleaching 
powder,  or  copperas  may  be  used  as  a  deodorizer. 

If  the  sanitary  drinking  fountain,  such  as  has 
been  referred  to,  is  not  used,  or  if  individual  drink- 
ing cups  are  not  provided,  the  cups  used  for  drink-  Care  of  drink- 
ing should  be  washed  frequently  with  hot  water  and  '"S  ^'"Ps- 
soap.  If  the  building  is  supplied  with  public  water, 
the  cups  should  stand  under  running  water  all 
the  time  during  school  hours.  In  some  quarters 
the  custom  has  prevailed  of  using  each  night 
sulpho-napthol  in  disinfecting  the  drinking  cups. 
It  has  also  been  used  about  doors,  hand  rails  and 
sanitaries. 

One  possible  cause  of  infection  is  the  common  use 
of  pencils,  penholders,  erasers,  etc.     This  danger  has 
been  prevented  to  a  large  extent  in  Everett,  Mass., 
by  a  simple  means  of  disinfection  devised  by  Dr.  r^j^^  disinfec- 
Whitehill   of    that    city.     It    is    thus   described    by  tion  of 
Superintendent  Condon :  apparatus. 

"The  danger  of  contagion  through  the  distribu- 
tion of  pencils,  penholders,  drawing  models  and 
other  articles  which  are  used  by  several  pupils,  has 
long  been  recognized  by  the  medical  profession.  We 
believe  it  has  been  left  for  a  member  of  your  board 
Dr.  G.  E.  Whitehill,  to  devise  a  simple,  inexpensive 
and  yet  effective  piece  of  apparatus  for  thoroughly 
disinfecting  supplies  of  this  kind.  The  apparatus 
consists  of  a  tin  chest,  with  a  tightly  fitting  cover, 
in  size  12  by  12  by  15  inches.  In  this  is  room  for 
trays  1  inch  in  depth,  with  wooden  sides,  and  the  bot- 
tom covered  with  wire  netting  of  a  small  mesh.  The 
bottom  tray  rests  upon  a  narrow  shelf  at  each  end, 
having  a  space  21/2  inches  below  the  lowest  tray. 


324 


Appendix  F 


Rules  for 
avoiding  in- 
fection. 


Care  of  win- 
dows and 
management 
of  curtains. 


The  other  trays  rest  upon  each  other.  In  the  free 
space  at  the  bottom  is  kept  a  sponge  saturated  with 
formaldehyde.  Each  class  room  is  supplied  with  a 
tray,  and  as  the  pencils,  penholders,  erasers  or  other 
articles  are  collected,  they  are  placed  in  this  tray, 
to  be  left  over  night  in  the  tin  chest.  The  forma- 
line gas  evaporates  and  comes  in  contact  with  all 
the  articles  in  the  different  trays,  destroying  any 
germs  which  may  have  adhered  to  them. 

The  danger  from  infection  is  partially  met  in  the 
recommendations  of  the  Marlborough,  Mass.,  board 
of  health:  (1)  That  the  teachers  in  the  schools  shall 
require  each  pupil  to  keep  and  use  his  own  individ- 
ual books  and  school  apparatus,  desk  and  chair  in 
the  schoolroom,  and  hook  for  outside  clothing;  (2) 
that  only  such  apparatus  be  used  in  the  schools  as 
can  be  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected  by  being 
dipped  in  boiling  water;  (3)  that  the  drinking  dip- 
pers in  the  school  buildings  be  boiled  as  often  as 
once  a  week. 

Next  in  importance  to  providing  windows  and 
shades  of  the  right  kind  in  schoolrooms,  is  the  proper 
care  of  them.  The  windows  should  be  kept  clean  by 
frequent  washing  and  wiping,  and  the  curtains 
should  be  so  managed  that  all  the  pupils  may  receive 
the  most  and  best  light  that  the  windows  will  afford. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  a  majority  of  rooms  whose 
windows  are  furnished  with  curtains  the  latter  in- 
junction is  not  followed.  The  curtains  generally  are 
drawn  from  the  top,  and  in  far  too  many  rooms  they 
cover  during  the  entire  day— and  sometimes  during 
cloudy  days— the  upper  third  or  half  of  every  win- 
dow. Sometimes  also  the  curtains  upon  the  windows 
placed  in  front  of  the  pupils  are  not  drawn,  while 


School  Hygiene  325 

much   work   is  required   to  be  copied   from   black- 
boards situated  between  two  windows. 

There  can  be  little  wonder  at  the  large  number 
of  pupils  in  the  middle  and  higher  grades  having 
diseased  eyes,  when  the  prevailing  conditions  and  Defective 
practice  in  the  schools  are  considered.  In  almost  ^iglit. 
every  one  of  the  scores  of  investigations  which  have 
been  made  within  ten  years  in  Europe  and  America 
the  results  were  most  alarming,— from  20%  to  60% 
of  children  in  the  elementary  schools  having  defec- 
tive sight,  and  even  a  higher  percentage  in  high 
schools.* 

Some  investigations  have  shown  that,  while  many 
cases  of  impaired  sight  may  be  traced  to  inheritance, 
a  large  percentage  of  cases  is  directly  due  to  an  over- 
strain of  the  eyes  in  school. f  Teachers  should 
constantly  guard  themselves  against  requiring 
written  work  to  be  done  during  cloudy  days.  Exercises  on 
especially  during  the  last  hour  of  the  day.  Upon  dark  days, 
very  dark  days  very  little  reading  or  study  should 
be  required.  In  schools  which  have  more  than  one 
grade  there  should  be  at  such  times  oral  and  general 
exercises  for  all  the  pupils. 

In    no    respect    are    complaints    of    neglect   more  Faults  in  the 
frequently  heard  from  superintendents  than  in  con-  ^'«^re  of  heatiug 
nection  with  the  care  of  the  heating  and  ventilating  J[7  aratus*^  ^"^ 
apparatus.       In   rooms  heated  by  stoves  it  is  not 

*For  details  of  some  investigations,  see  3,  p.  151 ;  1,  p, 
241;    2,  p.  100;    12,  p.  353;    4,  p.  7. 

t  Dr.  Kotelmann  cites  several  instances  (1,  p.  112)  in 
which  great  differences  in  the  soundness  of  pupils'  eyes  were 
shown  to  be  due  to  differences  of  school  conditions  and  re- 
quirements. In  one  case  the  percentage  of  myopia  had  in 
eight  years  decreased  three  to  fifty  jier  cent,  in  the  various 
rooms  of  a  high  school  whose  hygienic  conditions  had  been 
improved. 


326  Appendix  F 

uncommon  to  find  the  temperature  below  60°  during 
the  first  hour  of  the  morning  session,  because  the  fire 
was  built  late,  and  75°  or  80°  later  in  the  day.  The 
all  too  small  aperture  for  letting  out  the  impure  air 
is  frequently  closed  \fy  janitors,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main closed  by  carelessness  of  teachers. 

Even  the  best  apparatus  for  heating  and  ventila- 
tion does  not  escape  the  results  of  carelessness  and 
ignorance.  The  stack  heater  for  the  exhaust  flue 
frequently  remains  unused  for  days  and  weeks  to- 
gether, simply  to  save  coal  or  kerosene,  or  possibly 
a  little  trouble.  Janitors  are  inclined  to  close  the 
fresh-air  inlets  in  cold  weather,  and  permit  air  to 
enter  from  the  basement,  with  the  result  of  having 
the  air  circulate  through  the  schoolrooms  and  water- 
closets  in  common.  So  many  and  various  are  the 
ways  of  neglecting  the  ventilating  apparatus,  that 
nothing  short  of  a  complete  automatic  attachment 
will  suffice  to  keep  the  room  unfailingly  at  the 
desired  temperature  of  68°. 

Composition  and  Adjustment  of  the  School 
Programme 

Thus  far  among  hygienic  conditions  for  which 
school  authorities  are  alone  responsible,  I  have  re- 
ferred only  to  those  of*  an  external  kind.  Other 
conditions  of  the  same  class  affecting  the  health  of 
the  pupils  are  those  which  relate  to  the  composition 
and  adjustment  of  the  school  programme.  These 
will  be  treated  briefly  under  the  following  heads : 
(1)  course  of  studies,  (2)  daily  programme  and  in- 
struction, (3)  intermissions,  (4)  school  sessions,  (5) 
length  of  recitation,  and  (6)  amount  of  work  re- 
quired of  pupils. 


School  Hygiene  327 

Course  of  Studies. — It  is  easy  enough  to  say  that 

the  school  programme  should  have  such  an  extent, 

variety,  and  arrangement  of  studies  as  will  conduce 

to  the  physical  as  well  as  mental  well-being  of  all 

the  pupils ;  to  make  and  apply  such  a  programme  is 

quite  a  different  matter.     The  difficulty  of  arranging  Difficulty  of  " 

a  course  of  studies  suited  to  all  is  realized  when  anauging  a 

it  is  known  that  all  pupils,  the  bright  and  the  dull,  ^^"^^^^  ^  "  7 
^     ^       '  "  suited  to  all. 

the  strong  and  the  weak,  should  have  enough  pro- 
vided for  them  fully  to  tax  their  powers  without 
injury  either  to  the  body  or  to  the  mind. 

The  task,  however,  of  laying  out  a  general  course 
of  studies  is  considerably  lessened  if  it  is  kept  in 
mind  that  the  adaptation  of  subjects  to  pupils  lies 
largely  with  the  teacher.  To  give  her  sufficient  An  elastic 
freedom  in  this  regard,  the  course  which  she  has  as  course  needed, 
a  guide  must  be  general  and  elastic ;  that  is,  it  must 
be  such  that  the  work  required  of  pupils  will  be 
subject  to  conditions  of  temperament,  health  and 
outside  demands,  as  well  as  to  those  of  intellectual 
ability. 

So  important  is  this  principle  of  adaptation,  and 
such  is  the  difference  in  pupils,  that,  if  the  require- 
ments of  any  course  of  studies  prevent  one  pupil 
from  doing  much  more  than  what  another  pupil  of 
the  same  class  will  be  able  to  do,  or  if  they  force  one 
pupil  to  do  much  less  than  what  another  pupil  of 
the  same  class  ought  to  do,  they  are  not  what  they 
should  be. 

Again,  the  importance  of  protecting  the  chiklren 
during  the  transition  period  from  the  kindergarten  Tmnsition 
to  the  school  or  from  the  home  to  the  school  should  P'''"od. 
be  recognized  by  giving  a  large  proportion  of  obser- 


328  Appendix  F 

vation,   manual    and   physical   exercises   during   the- 

first  year  or  two  of  the  course.* 

Anxiety  at-  It  is  well  known  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  amount 

tending  exam-  of  work  that  one  has  to  do  as  the  worry  occasioned 

inations  and        jjj  doing  it  that  causes  physical  and  mental  collapse. 

■  And  so  it  is  not  so  much  the  number  of  studies,  or 

even  the  amount  of  work  given  to  them,  as  the  strain 

of  anxiety  in  preparing  for  examinations,  and  fear- 

of  not  being  promoted,  that  most  injures  the  pupils. 

So  far  as  the  course  of  studies  has  to  do  with  these 

occasions  of  exhaustion  and  ill  health,  it  should  be- 

made  so  as  to  protect  both  teachers  and  pupils  from. 

possible  excesses  or  mistakes.f 

Allowance  of         In  the  interests  of  health,  there  should  be  a  liberal 

time  for  allowance  of  time  provided  in  the  course  of  studies*. 

physical  train-  £qj.  physical  and  manual  exercises  *  and  for  instruc- 
inc 

tion  in  physiology  and  hygiene.     The  amount  to  be 

done  in  these  subjects  and   the  place  in   the   pro- 
gramme they  should  take  will  be  referred  to  later. 

The  course  of  studies  of  the  larger  cities  should 

make   provision   for  all   defective   or   weak-minded 

children   that   are   not   provided   for  by   the   state, 

giving    the    utmost    freedom    and    opportunity    to 

Treatment  of      teachers  of  small  classes  to  adapt  the  work  to  the 

defectives.  needs   and   capacity  of  individual  pupils.     Of  this 

*  The  reasons  for  limiting  the  formal  work  of  the  first 
year  in  school  and  a  detailed  plan  of  exercises  for  that  year 
are  given  in  the  sixty-second  annual  report  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of   Education,   pp.   409-413. 

t  Matters  of  grading  and  promotions  of  pupils  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  sixty-first  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Board' 
of  Education,  pp.  297-314;   also  in   (13,  pp.  303-356). 

t  For  a  careful  estimate  of  the  proper  proportion  of  time- 
which  should  be  given  to  drawing,  manual  training  and  sing- 
ing, see  pp.  457-479  of  the  sixtieth  report  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts  Board    of    Education.. 


School  Hygiene  329 

class  of  children  Dr.  Lincoln  (16,  p.  83)  writes :  "Out- 
side of  the  class  returned  in  statistics  as  feeble- 
minded, there  exists  a  much  larger  class  (perhaps  five 
in  a  thousand)  of  'backward'  children,  a  type  with 
which  all  primary  teachers  are  familiar,  who  are  so 
deficient  as  to  be  incapable  of  profiting  by  ordinary 
school  methods.  They  constitute  a  distinct  type, 
differing  from  the  grosser  types  only  in  degree  of 
defect;  they  display  all  the  cardinal  features  of 
imbecility  in  a  lesser  degree.  Few  classes  are  with- 
out some  specimen,  hopeless  under  existing  condi- 
tions, yet  fondled  and  defended  by  parental  love, 
which  can  see  no  inferiority  in  its  own  offspring.  A  Special  classes 
movement  for  the  education  of  these  children  in  for  weak  mind - 
special  classes  imder  trained  inspectors  has  just 
begun  in  the  United  States,  which  up  to  the  present 
includes  the  cities  of  Providence,  Worcester,  Spring- 
field, Boston,  Philadelphia  and  Chicago." 

The  children  here  referred  to  belong  to  what  has 
been  called  the  "abnormally  deficient"  class,— a 
class  separate  and  distinct  from  the  class  consisting  Special  treat- 
of  merely  dull  children  of  normal  type.  These  chil-  ment  of  dull 
dren  should  also  have  special  provision  made  for  children, 
them,  not  only  on  account  of  the  better  progress  they 
will  make  in  their  studies,  but  also  on  account  of  the 
desirability  of  preventing  tendencies  to  moral  and 
physical  degeneracy.  In  many  places,  at  present, 
small  ungraded  classes  are  formed  for  the  benefit 
of  children  who  are  slow,  or  who  for  other  reasons 
need  individual  attention.  Such  classes  generally 
consist  of  not  more  than  twenty  pupils,  and  the  work 
done  is  mainly  with  individual  pupils.  Transfers 
are  constantly  made  to  and  from  the  class,  as  occa- 
sion demands. 

Daily  Programme  and  Instruction, — There  is  a  feel- 


330  Appendix  F 

ing  abroad,  occasionally  expressed  by  physicians  and 
newspaper  writers,  that  there  is  "over-pressure"  in 
the  schools  to  such  an  extent  that  many  children  are 
falling  by  the  way  and  made  invalids  for  life.     There 
Opinions  re-       is  another  feeling  abroad,  expressed  quite  frequently 
lating to  "over-  ^y  opponents  of  the  "new  education,"  that  teachers 
pressuie  .  ^^^  doing  too  much  for  their  pupils,  and  are  thereby 

helping  to  create  a  race  of  degenerates, — "soft 
pedagogics"  is  the  term  sometimes  given  to  desig- 
nate the  process. 

Widely  divergent  as  are  these  criticisms  of  present 
practice  in  the  schools,  there  is  perhaps  enough  truth 
in  both  charges  to  put  teachers  on  their  guard  in 
respect  to  the  demands  they  make  upon  their  pupils 
Viewing  the  matter  solely  from  the  standpoint  of 
Hard  intellect-  health,  we  may  agree  that  hard  intellectual  work  of 
ual  work  no  in-  ^^g  right  kind,  done  within  proper  limits  of  time,  can 
in  no  way  be  injurious  to  children.  It  must  be  as 
healthful  for  them  to  exercise  the  brain  actively  as  it 
is  for  them  to  exercise  the  legs  actively.  It  is  not 
hard  work  that  is  harmful  or  repugnant  to  the 
normal  child  so  much  as  work  which  is  not  suited  to 
his  needs  and  powers. 

Of  course  a  discrimination  must  be  made  between 
the  natural  tendencies  of  the  child  and  those  tenden- 
cies which  have  been  imposed  upon  him.  The 
former  may  lead  and  point  the  way  of  the  best  train- 
ing, while  the  latter  may  indicate  the  course  to  be 
resisted. 
The  problem—       "What  is  needed  for  health 's  sake  is  not  necessarily 

not  less  work      ^^  \q^sqy^  the  work  of  children,  but  to  lead  them  to 

l)u,t  less 

fatlffue  work  in  such  a  way  and  at  such  times  that  the  largest 

results    in   mental   strength   and   alertness    will    be 

gained  with  the  least  fatigue.     This  is  not  done  by 

carrying  on  the  same  subject  or  kind  of  work  too 


School  Hygiene  331 

long  at  a  time,  or  by  giving  work  that  is  uninterest- 
ing. The  duration  of  effort  is  not  always  the  meas- 
ure of  fatigue  attending  it,  and  neither  time  nor 
fatigue  necessarily  determines  the  amount  or  inten- 
sity of  effort  exerted.  There  is  some  study  which 
cheers  and  invigorates,  while  there  is  other  study 
which  palls  upon  the  mind  and  wearies  it  to  the  point 
of  stagnation.  No  one  will  say  that  the  former 
study,  although  alert  and  active,  is  nearly  as  harmful 
physically  as  the  latter.  The  two  states  of  mind  Interest  aiul 
needed  for  the  physical  as  well  as  for  the  mental  freshness 
well-being  of  pupils  are  interest  and  freshness;   the  ,  _, 

former  depending  largely  upon  the  subject  and  the 
way  it  is  presented,  and  the  latter  upon  the  times 
in  which  the  recitation  or  study  is  carried  on. 

One  means  of  determining  the  proper  place  and 
and  order  of  recitations  in  the  day's  programme  is 
the  condition  of  the  pupils  in  respect  to  fatigue. 
While  work  of  any  kind  must  be  accompanied  by 
fatigue,  and  while  fatigue  in  itself  is  not  harmful 
(17,  p.  144),  it  becomes  harmful  when  long-continued  Fatigue  harm- 
or  heavy  demands  are  made  upon  the  mind  whicli  f^i'  when  long 
lead  to  exhaustion  and  disease.  Both  experienge  ^^^  ^^^^  ' 
and  fatigue  studies  have  shown  that  the  branches  of 
study  which  most  tax  the  mind  should  be  given  in 
the  early  part  of  the  day,  while  the  children's  minds 
are  rested,  and  that  those  which  make  the  least  de- 
mands should  be  given  later.  The  sub.iects  upon 
good  authority  which  are  most  fatiguing  are  mathe- 
matics and  foreign  languages,  and  those  which  are 
least  fatiguing  are  singing  and  drawing  (IH,  j).  81). 
If  the  school  day  of  five  hours  is  dividiMl  into  two 
sessions,  it  would  seem  best  to  havr  a  thi-ci'-lioui' 
session  in  the  forenoon,  oceuj)i('d  by  roeitations  and 
study  that  are  mo.st  taxing  to  tli<>  pupils;    and  a  two- 


332 


Appendix  F 


A  liberal  al- 
lowance for 
intermissions. 


hour  session  in  the  afternoon,  occupied  by  singing 
games  and  manual  exercises.  What  has  been  said 
of  the  desirability  of  placing  the  most  taxing  recita- 
tions early  in  the  day  will  apply  to  written  examina- 
tions which  have  been  fonnd  to  be  very  fatiguing.* 

Intermissions. — Results  of  investigations  have 
shown  that  the  time  of  the  short  recess  and  even 
that  of  the  long  noon  intermission  is  not  long  enough 
fully  to  rest  the  pupils;  that  is,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  period  after  the  intermission  the  available 
strength  for  mental  work  is  not  as  great  as  at  the 
beginning  of  the  morning  session.  The  extended 
scientific  observations  of  Burgerstein  in  Germany 
(12,  p.  237)  and  of  Key  in  Sweden  (1,  p.  227)  all  go 
to  prove  that  a  liberal  allowance  should  be  made  for 
intermissions  during  the  school  day, — an  allowance 
even  greater  than  is  made  in  Germany,f  and  far 
greater  than  is  made  in  any  of  our  American  schools. 
Thus  Kraeplin  (1,  p.  194)  says  that  recesses  should 
be  longer  than  they  generally  are,  and  should  follow 
one  another  at  shorter  intervals;  and  Kotelmann 
(1,  p.  195)  approves  the  programme  proposed  by 
Hakonson-Hansens,  in  which,  in  a  six-hour  school 
day,  from  8  A.  M.  to  2  P.  M.,  there  are  six  intermis- 
sions,—five  of  ten  minutes  each  and  one  of  twenty 
minutes. 

These    recommendations,    based    upon    the    most 


*  Dr.  Newsholme  and  others  (28,  p.  66)  would  diminish 
fatigue  by  change  of  subjects;  alternating  language  or  history 
with  mathematics,  and  mentally  fatiguing  subjects  with  pen- 
manship  or  manual   training. 

t  In  Prussian  secondary  schools  the  total  time  given  to 
intermissions  daily  must  be  not  less  than  forty  and  not  more 
than  forty-five  minutes.  In  Bavaria  the  same  class  of  schools 
are  obliged  to  have  a  recess  of  ten  minutes  every  hour. 


School  Hygiene  333 

careful  investigations  and  the  most  universal  prac- 
tice of  German  schools,  may  well  lead  us  to  question 
the  wisdom  of  our  school  authorities  in  limiting  the 
time  of  recesses  as  much  as  they  do.  Especially 
should  they  attract  the  attention  of  those  who  are 
inclined  to  abolish  the  recess  altogether,  or  to  sub- 
stitute gymnastic  exercises  for  the  games  of  the  old- 
fashioned  recess.  More  will  be  said  upon  the  sub- 
ject, when  the  general  hygienic  treatment  of  pupils 
is  discussed. 

Scliool  Sessions. — As  to  the  desirability  of  having  Arguments  for 
two  school  sessions  or  one  in  the  day,  there  is,  as  ^'"^  against  the 
there  well  may  be,  a  difference  of  opinion,  for  there 
are  good  reasons  as  well  as  objections  that  may  be 
urged  upon  either  side  of  the  question. 

The  arguments  usually  given  in  favor  of  the  single 
session  are:  (1)  the  shortness  of  the  days  in  winter, 
and  consequent  limited  period  of  daylight;  (2)  the 
saving  of  an  extra  walk  to  and  from  school;  (3)  the 
greater  opportunity  for  needed  recreation  in  the  way 
of  games,  excursions,  etc. 

The  arguments  opposed  to  the  single  session  and 
in  favor  of  the  double  one  are:  (1)  There  is  less 
danger  from  over-exhaustion,  when  there  is*  an  entire 
break  of  one  or  two  hours  in  the  work  of  the  day, 
than  when  the  work  is  continuous  or  Avhen  it  is  in- 
terrupted by  only  a  recess  of  twenty  or  thirty  min- 
utes; (2)  there  is  more  likelihood  of  a  good  breakfast 
and  dinner  being  eaten  under  the  two-session  i)lan 
than  under  the  one. 

If  the  above-named  arguments  fairly  represent  all 
that  can  be  said  upon  both  sides,  it  will  be  admitted 
that  for  hygienic  reasons  the  two  sessions  should  be 
preferred.  This,  however,  does  not  in  any  way 
imply  that  the  single  session  tnay  not  be  so  managed 


334 


Appendix  F 


Periods  of 
study  and 
recitation. 


as  to  conform  thoroughly  to  the  best  hygienic  rules ; 
as,  for  instance,  if  pauses  of  ten  minutes  are  given 
for  recreation  at  the  close  of  every  recitation  and 
study  period,  and  if  hot  soup  or  some  other  nutriti- 
ous food  is  supplied  the  pupils  in  a  half-hour  inter- 
mission. 

Length  of  Recitation. — There  is  substantial  agree- 
ment among  specialists  as  to  the  proper  length  of 
the  recitation  and  study  period.  This  agreement  is 
summarized  in  the  following  statement,  made  by  Dr. 
Kowe  (18,  p.  167)  :  "The  longest  period  which  a 
child  of  5  to  7  years  should  be  expected  to  have  for 
a  given  exercise  should  not  exceed  15  minutes.  For 
a  child  of  7  to  10  years,  it  should  not  exceed  20 
minutes ;  for  a  child  from  10  to  12,  not  over  25 ;  and 
from  12  to  16,  not  more  than  30.  These  figures  have 
been  approved  both  by  experiment  and  experience. 
They  are  maxima  for  all  confining  exercises. ' ' 

Amount  of  Work  required  of  Pupils. — European 
and  American  standards  of  what  should  be  required 
of  pupils  differ  considerably  both  in  theory  and  in 
Requirements  practice.  Dr.  Kotelmann  points  out  (1,  p.  212)  that 
of  home  study  in  the  Prussian  and  Bavarian  secondary  schools  from 
6  to  12  hours  a  week  of  home  study  is  required  from 
pupils  of  the  lower  classes,  and  from  12  to  18  hours 
of  such  study  from  pupils  of  the  upper  classes. 
Some  of  the  secondary  schools  of  other  parts  of 
Germany  make  even  more  severe  requirements  than 
these.  The  requirements  of  the  people's  schools 
are  doubtless  less  than  are  those  of  the  secondary 
schools ;  but  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  older  pupils 
of  the  former  schools  have  not  less  than  12  hours  of 
home  work  weekly. 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  number  of  hours  a 
week  in  which  the  schools  are  in  session  in  January 


in  Germany. 


School  Hygiene  335 

is  at  least  20%  more  than  our  schools  require,  we 
can  appreciate  the  enormous  pressure  that  is  put 
upon  the  pupils  there.  The  specialists  in  hygiene 
recommend  that  the  requirements  of  home  study 
be  lessened,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  tables,  the 
first  being  the  recommendations  of  the  expert  com- 
mission for  the  secondary  schools  of  Elsass-Lothrin- 
gen  (1,  p.  213),  and  the  second  recommendations 
of  Dr.  Key,  as  quoted  by  Dr.  Burgerstein  (12,  p. 
289): 

Table  I. — Showing  the  maximum  hours  per  week  recommended  for 

school  instruction  and  home  study  by  the  expert  commission  for 

the  secondary  schools  of  Elsass-Lothringen. 

School  instruction. 
AGE.                 Class.  Home 

Studies.  Singing.  Gymnastics.      Total,     work. 
2              4       5  6 

7,8 IX.,  VIII.        18  -  21— 21i 


2  4       5 

9 VII.        20  -  23—23^       5—6 

2  2       2 

10,11 VI.,  V.        24  2  2  —  3  28—29  8 

12,13,14,    IV.,  III.        26  2  2  30  12 

15,16,17,18,..  II.,  I.       30  2  2  34  12—18 

Table  II. — Shotcing  the  number  of  hours  per  week  recommended 
by  Br.  Key  for  school  instruction  and  home  study. 


7 

8 

9 

10,  11 
12,  13 
14... 
1.5,  16 
17,  18 


WHOLE 

NUMBER  OF 

hours'  work  required 

NUMBER 

OF 

NUMBER   OF 

WEEKLY 

,   INCLUDING 

HOURS 

WEEKLY 

HOURS  OF 

SINGING  AND  GYMNASTICS 

REQUIRED 

FOR 

HOME  STUDY 

In  the 

chool  and 

In  the  school 

home. 

alone. 

Singing 

Gymnas 

ics     Weekly 

Dai 

12—18 

12—18 

1 

2 

- 

- 

18—24 

15—21 

1 

2 

3 

i 

24—30 

18—24 

1 

3 

6 

1 

36 

29 

2 

3 

7 

li 

42 

32 

2 

3 

10 

lif 

48 

35 

2 

3 

13 

U 

51 

35 

2 

3 

16 

54 

35 

2 

3 

19 

H 

American  practice  varies  greatly,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  requirements  of  any  school  are  as  great  as 
those  recommended  above.  Practice  in  the  best 
schools  at  present  seems  to  favor  a  short  divided 


tendance  in 
America 


all  grades. 


336  Appendix  F 

period  of  3  hours '  attendance  for  the  younger  pupils, 
Requirements  and  an  attendance  of  5  or  5I/2  hours  for  the  older 
of  school  at-  pupils.  This  amount  of  time  spent  in  school,  with 
St  well-arranged  programme,  having  the  proper  num- 
ber of  manual  and  physical  exercises  and  recesses, 
ought  not  to  be  harmful  to  any  well  child. 

But  the  proper  length  of  a  school  day  cannot  be 
considered    apart  from   the    requirements   of  home 
The  maximum  Study.     The  time  given  above  ought  to  be  all  the 
amount  of  time   needed   for   study    by   pupils    below   the   7th 

home  study  in  gj-^de,  upon  the  assumption  that  children  are  ad- 
mitted to  school  at  5  years  of  age,  and  that  there  are 
9  grades  below  the  high  school.  The  maximum 
amount  of  home  study  for  pupils  of  the  7th  grade 
might  be  half  an  hour  daily,  and  for  pupils  of  the 
8th  and  9th  grades  from  one  hour  to  one  and  one- 
half  hours  daily.  For  pupils  of  the  high  school  the 
maximum  amount  of  home  study  daily  might  be  ex- 
tended to  two  and  three  hours. 

These  figures  are  given  upon  the  assumption  that 
no  study  of  any  kind  shall  be  required  or  permitted 
at  recess  or  after  school. 

The  following  table  embodies  the  suggestions 
which  I  have  made  as  to  a  proper  amount  of  school 
and  home  study.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  require- 
ments are  far  less  severe  than  those  recommended 
by  Dr.  Key,  but  it  is  believed  that  they  more  nearly 
fit  American  conditions  than  his  do. 


School  Hygiene 


337 


School  arid  home  study. 


NUMBER  OF  HOURS  WEEKLY  GIVEN  TO 


School 
GRADE  OR  Attendance   Recesses 

YEAR      (including        and 
IN  SCHOOL   recesses)  gymnastics 


Singing 


9.  . 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 


15 

2 

20 

2 

27i 

2i 

27* 

2* 

27i 

2i 

27i 

2i 

27* 

2i 

27  i 

2* 

27* 

2* 

25 

2 

25 

2 

25 

2 

25 

2 

Recitation 

and  Study  in 

Study  at  Home 

school  (not 

ig       including 

Min. 

Max. 

gymnastics 

and  singing 

1               11* 

- 

- 

1                 15J 

— 

- 

1                22 

— 

_ 

1                22 

_ 

_ 

1                22 

_ 

- 

1                22 

_ 

_ 

1                22 

U 

2i 

1                22 

2* 

5 

1                22 

5 

7A 

1                20 

7i 

10 

1                20 

10 

124 

1                 20 

10 

15 

1                20 

10 

15 

The  recommendations  contained  in  the  above  The  require- 
table  are  made  with  confidence,  since  they  agree  with  ments  to  meet 
the  practice  of  the  most  carefully  managed  American  ^.^^^  '"^  ^^^ 
schools.  Of  course,  it  is  understood  that  the  amount 
of  time  indicated  for  home  study  is  intended  only 
for  those  pupils  who  are  well.  The  time  given  is 
subject  to  change  for  those  who  for  any  reason  can- 
not do  the  full  work  of  the  school  without  impair- 
ment of  health.  If  children  have  to  practise  upon 
the  piano  one  or  two  hours  daily,  or  if  by  fulfillment 
of  social  functions  they  are  unable  to  meet  all  the 
requirements  of  the  school,  they  should  stand  pre- 
cisely where  the  weak-bodied  pupils  do  in  relation 
to  the  school.  Neither  class  is  to  blame  for  the 
obstructing  conditions,  and  neither  class  should  be 
made  to  suffer  by  too  great  exactions.  But  it  should 
be  understood  that  under  such  circumstances  the 
work  of  a  class  or  year  is  incomplete,  and  must  be 
made  up  before  full  credit  is  given. 

In  one  respect  the  recommendations  of  require- 
ments above  given  differ  from  the  requirements 
usually  made,  and  that  is  in  reference  to  the  amount 
of  home  study.     Two  standards  are  set,  one  for  the 


338 


Appendix  F 


Minimum  and 
maximum  re- 
qtiirements  to 
be  made. 


least  amoimt  of  time  which  should  be  spent  in  study, 
and  one  for  the  greatest  amount  of  time  so  spent. 
These  separate  standards  of  requirements  are  fixed 
in  the  belief  that  the  bodily  as  well  as  the  intellect- 
ual welfare  of  the  pupils  is  enhanced  by  an  accom- 
modation of  demands  to  ability. 

The  ordinary  practice  is  to  state  one  period  of 
time  for  home  study,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the 
time  suited  to  the  "average  pupil."  The  result  is 
that  some  of  the  pupils  far  exceed  the  amount 
named,  while  others  stop  far  short  of  it.  Both 
classes  of  pupils  may  be  injured,  one  from  doing  too 
much  and  the  other  from  doifig  too  little.  The  plac- 
ing of  a  minimum  for  home  study  means  that  the 
bright  pupils  must  not  be  deprived  of  the  advantage 
of  a  certain  amount  of  strenuous  effort.  The  maxi- 
mum limit  is  placed  for  the  benefit  of  that  class  of 
pupils— generally  girls — who  conscientiously  do 
more  than  is  required  of  them,  and  who,  for  the  sake 
of  their  health,  need  the  restraint  of  a  fixed  standard 
of  time  for  study,  beyond  which  they  shall  not  be 
permitted  to  go. 


Outside  Conditions 
In  tracing  the  causes  of  ill  health  among  school 
children,  no  one  will  deny  that  there  are  likely  to  be 
some  causes  for  which  the  school  authorities  ought 
Private  lessons  not  to  be  held  responsible.  When  we  consider  the 
close  connection  between  one's  state  of  health  and 
one's  habits  in  respect  to  eating  and  sleeping,  and 
when,  further,  we  consider  the  extent  of  control 
which  the  parents  have  or  ought  to  have  over  their 
children  in  these  respects,  we  cannot  leave  the  in- 
fluences of  the  home  out  of  consideration  in  any 
treatment  of  the  health  of  school  children. 


and  social 
diversions 


School  Hygiene  339 

This  consideration  is  all  the  more  imperative  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  the  school  must  take  the 
child  as  it  finds  him,  and  must  in  the  interests  of 
the  child  conform  to  all  the  conditions  imposed  upon 
him  from  without.  If  his  strength  is  given  largely 
to  private  lessons  or  social  diversions,  or  if  his 
system  is  weakened  by  insufficient  sleep  or  nourish- 
ment, there  must  be  a  certain  degree  of  conformity 
of  opportunity  and  demands  to  his  impaired  powers. 
The  conditions  cannot  be  fully  met  by  the  teacher 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  child's  impaired  abilities 
and  the  occasions  of  them.  A  wise  conformity  to 
conditions  means  more  than  a  mere  acceptance  of 
them  and  adaptation  of  the  school  programme  to 
fit  them;  it  involves  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  remedy  as  far  as  possible  the  faults  which 
obstruct  the  work  of  the  school. 

The  causes  of  physical  and  mental  weakness  for  Causes  ofj'phy- 
which    parents    and    pupils    are    responsible    have  ^ifal  and  ment- 
already  been  hinted  at.     They  are  want  of  attention  ^^  weakness, 
to   diet  and   sleep,   social   diversions,    uncleanliness 
and  other  bad  personal  habits.     It  is  vain  to  suppose 
that  these  obstructive  conditions  can  be  fully  con- 
trolled by  the  teacher,  or  even  appreciably  so,  in  a 
large  number  of  cases.     It  is  hoped,  however,  that 
every   teacher  will   make   an   effort  to   urge  upon 
parents  and  pupils  alike  the  importance    (1)    of  a 
large  amount  of  restful  sleep  every  night,*  (2)  of  a 

*  Dr.  Key,  who  has  given  much  attention  to  the  subject, 
says  that  children  from  seven  to  nine  years  of  age  need  eleven 
hours  of  sleep  daily,  that  children  from  ten  to  thirteen  years 
of  age  need  ten  or  eleven  hours,  and  that  children  beyond  this 
age  up  to  eighteen  need  from  eight  and  one-half  to  nine  and 
one-half  hours  (12,  p.  289).  He  found  in  his  investigations 
in  Stockholm  that  those  pupils  who  had  an  insufficient  amount 


340  Appendix  F 

sufficient  diet  of  nutritious  food  taken  at  proper 
times, t  (3)  of  abundant  recreations  that  will  in- 
vigorate and  refresh  both  body  and  mind,  (4)  of  a 
careful  attention  to  cleanliness  by  frequently  brush- 
ing the  teeth  and  bathing  the  body,  and  (5)  of  pure 
personal  habits  which  will  in  no  way  injure  the  body 
or  debase  the  mind. 
Bad  personal  To    be    successful   in   checking   the    evils    of   bad 

habits  among      personal  habits   among   boys,    such   as   the   use    of 
^^^'  tobacco  and  secret  vice,  demands  the  utmost  efforts 

of  teachers,  who  first  of  all  must  realize  their  prev- 
alence and  the  enormous  injury  done  by  them  to 
the  body  and  mind.  "While  the  chief  reliance  for 
success  must  be  made  upon  constructive  lines,  such 
as  giving  the  pupils  instruction  in  physiology,  and 

of  sleep  had  from  five  to  eight  per  cent,  more  sickness  than 
their  schoolmates  who  had  sufficient  sleep.  Dr.  Dukes  (23, 
p.  124)  would  allow  the  following  number  of  hours  per  night 
for  sleep:  children  five  years  of  age,  thirteen  and  one-half; 
six,  thirteen;  seven,  twelve  and  one-half;  eight,  twelve;  nine, 
eleven  and  one-half;  ten,  eleven;  eleven,  ten  and  one-half; 
twelve  and  thirteen,  ten;  fourteen,  nine  and  one-half;  fifteen 
and  sixteen,  nine;  from  seventeen  to  nineteen,  eight  and  one- 
half. 

t  The  attention  of  parents  and  pupils  should  be  especially 
called  to  the  importance  of  eating  a  substantial  breakfast, 
and  of  taking  plenty  of  time  for  it.  This  advice  is  par- 
ticularly needed  for  pupils  of  high  schools,  who  frequently  are 
found  attending  a  five-hour  school  session  after  a  hasty  and 
insufficient  breakfast.  School  luncheons  should  also  be  made 
a  subject  of  careful  attention.  In  many  places  food  of  a 
very  nutritious  kind  and  at  little  cost  is  provided  at  recess  by 
the  school  authorities  or  by  some  one  authorized  by  them. 
Dr.  Newshohne  (28,  p.  96)  recommends  the  giving  of  penny 
dinners,  such  as  are  given  in  some  of  the  London  Board 
Schools.  He  also  recommends  giving  to  each  child  in  the 
poorer  districts  a  mug  of  milk  and  slice  of  bread  before  the 
morning's  work  begins. 


School  Hygiene  34:1 

leading  them  into  orood  habits  of  industry,  the  pre- 
ventive and  personal  means  must  not  be  neglected, 
in  which  courage  and  tact  will  be  required.  For 
the  fullest  success  in  many  cases,  the  co-operation  of 
parents  will  be  needed. 

Dr.  Burgerstein  (21,  p.  257)  urges  the  great  need  Instruction  for 
of  a  systematic  effort  to  spread  hygienic  knowledge  ^^^  people  in 
among  the   people.     The    means    recommended   are    *^^^^°^' 
as  follows :    distribution  of  brief  tracts,  courses  in 
normal    schools   and    secondary    schools,    university 
extension    lectures,    associations,    popular    lectures, 
reading  rooms,  portable  exhibits. 

Some  superintendents  have  found  it  useful  to  send 
to  parents  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  a  printed 
letter  or  circular,  giving  a  few  suggestions  relating 
to  the  habits  and  health  of  the  children.     An  example  A  circular  let- 
of  what  is  needful  for  parents  to  know  is  shown  in   ^^^  ^^  parents 
the  following  letter,  prepared  by  Dr.  Wm.  H.  Max-  ^  "ifh"'"! 
well,   and   sent  to   the  parents  of  all  the  pupils  in   habits  of 
Brooklyn  when  he  was  superintendent  of  the  schools  children, 
of  that  city.     It  follows,  in  the  same  circular,  a  letter 
addressed  to   teachers  respecting  the  requirements 
they  should  make  of  the  pupils. 

To  Parents 
1.  The  health  of  your  children  is  paramount  to 
every  other  consideration.  "When  children,  par- 
ticularly girls,  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  seven- 
teen, exhibit  evidence  of  nervous  disorder,  such  as 
twitching  of  the  face  and  hands,  or  extreme  irrita- 
bility, it  is  a  sure  sign  either  that  the  scliool  work  is 
too  severe,  or  that  they  are  not  living  under  pro]jer 
hygienic  conditions,  or  both.  In  all  such  cases 
school  work  should  be  either  materially  lessened  or 
be  intermitted  until  there  is  a  restoration  to  health. 


342  Appendix  F 

2.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  to  conquer  the  diffi- 
culties of  arithmetic  and  grammar  or  the  intricacies 
of  a  new  language  is  harder  work  for  the  child  than 
are,  for  the  business  or  professional  man,  his  every- 
day avocations.  Hence,  children  need  constant  care, 
sympathy  and  encouragement. 

3.  Children  should  spend  not  less  than  two  hours 
every  day  in  the  open  air,  and,  if  possible,  should 
engage  in  games  requiring  both  skill  and  activity. 

4.  Children  should  spend  at  least  twenty  minutes 
every  day  in  practising  at  home  the  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises they  learn  at  school. 

5.  Children  should  not  be  permitted  to  attend 
social  parties  or  public  meetings  or  entertainments 
on  evenings  preceding  school  days. 

6.  Children  should  spend  in  sleep  not  less  than 
nine,  and,  if  possible,  ten,  hours  out  of  every  twenty- 
four. 

7.  The  following  practices  should  be  prohibited, 
as  being  injurious  to  health :  study  before  partaking 
of  food  in  the  morning ;  the  rapid  reading  of  lessons 
just  before  the  beginning  of  a  school  session ;  study 
during  the  noon  intermission;  study  immediately 
after  the  close  of  school,  before  mind  and  body  have 
been  rested  by  play  or  other  suitable  change  of 
occupation ;  study  immediately  after  eating  a  hearty 
meal. 

8.  When  children  study  or  read  either  by  sunlight 
or  by  artificial  light,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
light  is  sufficient,  and  that  it  falls  upon  the  page 
from  the  left. 

9.  Children  should  have  fixed  hours  for  study, 
never  exceeding  the  time  specified  in  the  rule  of  the 
board  of  education,  and  nothing  should  be  per- 
mitted to  interfere  with  these  hours  of  study. 


ScKool  Hygiene  343 

10.  When  parents  find  that  their  children,  after 
conscientious  effort,  cannot  accomplish  the  work 
assigned  by  the  teacher  in  the  time  specified  in  the 
rule,  they  should  at  once  communicate  the  fact  to 
the  principal  of  the  school,  and  ask  diminution  of 
the  tasks  assigned. 

11.  Parents  should  never  urge  children  to  make 
■extra  efforts  to  obtain  promotion,  nor  show  annoy- 
ance if  they  fail  to  obtain  promotion.  What  chil- 
dren need  for  intellectual  and  moral  progress  is 
systematic,  not  spasmodic,  work.  If,  for  any  good 
reason,  a  child  is  not  promoted  or  graduated  at  the 
end  of  term,  he  should  not  be  reprimanded,  but 
encouraged  to  try  again.  Nor  should  parents,  by 
finding  fault  with  the  teacher,  weaken  her  influence 
for  good. 

12.  Cigarette  smoking  by  growing  boys  is  danger- 
ous alike  to  the  physical,  the  intellectual  and  the 
mojal  well-being.  Parents  cannot  be  too  vigilant 
in  preventing  their  sons,  who  have  not  yet  reached 
maturity,  from  using  tobacco  in  any  form,  and 
particularly  in  that  of  the  cigarette. 

Inspection  and  Supervision 
In    what    has    been    said    thus    far    it    has   been 
assumed  that  all  the  circumstances  relating  to  the 
health    of   pupils    should   be   known   by    the   school   Professional 
officials,  and  that  no  adverse  conditions  be  allowed  "'ly'ce  and 

!  I  SSI  Sl  Alice 

to  exist.  The  hygienic  conditions  of  the  school  re-  '  ' 
late,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  location,  construction 
and  plan  of  buildings,  school  equipment,  and  the 
composition  and  adjustment  of  the  school  pro- 
gramme. The  effects  of  adverse  conditions  must 
also  be  recognized  before  they  can  be  properly  pre- 
vented or  treated.     It  is  hardly  supposable  that  all 


344 


Appendix  F 


Medical  in- 
spection of 
schools. 


Plan  of  medic-al 
inspection  in 
Boston. 


these  eirciimstanees  and  the  means  of  correction  can 
be  fully  known  and  understood  by  the  teachers  in 
charge.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  they  shall 
have  such  professional  assistance  or  advice  as  will 
enable  them  to  correct  existing  faults  and  to  prevent 
disease  and  contagion. 

The  circumstances  concerning  which  advice  and 
assistance  will  be  most  needed  are  those  relating  to 
the  ventilation  and  lighting  of  the  schoolroom,  the 
desks  and  seats,  the  amount  and  kind  of  mental 
exercises  needed  to  keep  the  pupils  in  good  physical 
health,  the  detection  of  incipient  forms  of  disease, 
and  the  method  of  treating  each  pupil  not  in  a 
normal  condition  of  body  or  mind. 

The  most  apparent  need  of  advice  is  in  the. detec- 
tion of  the  first  stages  of  contagious  diseases,  such 
as  diphtheria,  scarlet-fever  and  measles.  The  laws 
of  Massachusetts  provide  for  the  careful  exehision 
of  all  pupils  from  school  who  are  sick  with  or  who 
have  been  exposed  to  infectious  diseases  :*  but  a 
careful  observance  of  this  law  cannot  prevent  the 
spread  of  disease  which  appears  in  such  incipient 
form  as  to  escape  the  detection  of  parents  and 
teachers.  "What  is  needed,  for  the  sake  of  the  com- 
munity as  well  as  of  the  persons  afflicted,  is  some 
form  of  inspection  which  will  keep  from  the  school 
all  pupils  from  whom  there  is  any  danger  of  con- 
tagion. 

This  is  accomplished  to  a  very  satisfactory  degree 
in  so-called  medical  inspection,  which  is  carried  on 
in  New  York.  Boston,  Cambridge  and  several  other 
American  cities. 

The  plan  which  has  been  foQowed  in  Boston  for 
the   past    six   years   is    as   follows :     By    a    special 

*  Chapter  496,  section  11,  Acts  of  1898. 


School  Hygiene  345 

arrangement  with  the  school  committee,  inspectors 
are  appointed  by  the  board  of  health  to  visit  each 
day  all  the  schools  soon  after  the  opening  of  the 
morning  session.  If  any  of  the  children  appear  not 
well,  they  are  examined  by  the  inspector;  and  if  he 
finds  any  child  with  sjTnptoms  of  an  infectious  dis- 
ease he  exercises  his  authority  as  agent  of  the  board 
of  health  and  orders  the  child  to  be  sent  home.  He 
at  once  reports  the  case  to  the  board  of  health,  and 
follows  it  up.  seeing  to  it  that  the  child  is  either 
properly  isolated  or  sent  to  the  hospital.  Later,  he 
makes  another  visit,  to  see  if  all  danger  of  infection 
has  ceased. 

If  a  child  is  found  to  be  ill,  but  without  symp- 
toms of  an  infectious  disease,  "the  teacher  is  ad- 
vised to  send  the  child  home,  with  a  message,  written 
or  oral,  as  may  seem  best,  stating  what  the  trouble 
may  be,  and  suggesting,  if  medical  care  seems  to  be 
needed,  that  the  family  physician  be  called." 
Further  particulars  and  results  of  the  plan  are  given 
in  Superintendent  Seaver's  report  for  March,  1900, 
(19,  p.  38).* 

It  is  entirely  feasible  for  any  city  or  town  to 
follow  the  plan  above  indicated.  Some  idea  of  the 
cost  will  be  gained  from  the  following  statement  of 
Dr.  Durgin,  chairman  of  the  Boston  board  of  health 
(21,  p.  1500):  "The  board  of  health  divided  the 
city  into  50  districts,  giving  an  average  of  about  4 
schoolhouses  and  1,400  pupils  to  each  district.  Xo 
difiSculty  was  experienced  in  finding  well-qualified 

*  Plans  of  general  medical  inspection  are  contained  in  the 
report  of  the  board  of  school  visitors,  Hartford,  Conn.,  March 
31,  1900;  also  in  (5,  p.  17;  9,  p.  54;  21,  p.  1489).  The  last- 
named  reference  has  accounts  of  inspection  plans  and  results 
in  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Berlin  and  Paris. 


346 


Appendix  F 


Medical  in- 
spection of 
schools  in  New 
Jersey. 


Inspection  of 
sight  and  hear- 
ing. 


and  discreet  physicians  who  would  undertake  the 
duties  prescribed,  and  the  board  secured  and  ap- 
pointed one  physician  for  each  district,  mth  a 
salary  of  $200  a  year." 

The  laws  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey  (chapter  96, 
article  XXX.,  of  the  laws  of  1900)  provide  that  any. 
local  board  of  education  may  employ"  a  competent 
physician,  who  shall  visit  the  schools  at  stated  times 
and  examine  pupils  referred  to  him  by  the  teachers, 
and,  "at  least  once  during  each  school  year  examine 
every  pupil,  to  learn  whether  any  physical  defect 
exists,  and  keep  a  record  from  year  to  year  of  the 
growth  and  development  of  such  pupil,  which  record 
shall  be  the  property  of  the  board  of  education,  and 
shall  be  delivered  by  said  medical  inspector  to  his 
successor  in  office."  The  law  further  provides  that 
he  "shall  lecture  before  the  teachers  at  such  times 
as  may  be  designated  by  the  board  of  education,  in- 
structing them  concerning  the  methods  employed  to 
detect  the  first  signs  of  communicable  disease,  and 
the  recognized  measures  for  the  promotion  of  health 
and  prevention  of  disease." 

The  above  law  provides  for  one  form  of  medical 
inspection  which  has  been  adopted  with  success  in 
several  cities  and  towns,  and  that  is  inspection  of  the 
sight  and  hearing  of  pupils.  As  would  be  ex- 
pected, the  results  of  investigations  differ  as  to  the 
percentage  of  pupils  having  defective  sight  and  hear- 
ing, depending  upon  the  age  of  pupils,  conditions 
under  which  pupils  have  used  their  eyes,  and  the 
character  of  the  examination;  but  all  the  tests  that 
have  been  made  thus  far  reveal  the  fact  that  the  eyes 
of  from  10%  to  45%  of  the  pupils  of  the  schools  are 
defective  and  that  a  good  proportion  of  those  who 
have  defective  eyes  need  special  treatment. 


School  Hygiene  347 

The  cases  of  defective  hearing  are  less  common 
than  the  cases  of  defective  sight  but  they  are  found 
sufficient  in  number  to  warrant  a  careful  inspection 
in  every  school. 

The   following   results   of    investigations   indicate  Results  of  in- 
the  extent  to  which  defective  sight  and  hearing  have  vestigations. 
been    found    under    various    conditions    and    show 
clearly  the  urgent  need  of  systematic  and  general 
inspection.      The  difference  of  results  is  due  in  part 
to  the  difference  of  defects  reported,  some  of  the 
reports  indicating  serious  defects  only^. 
Passaic,  N.  J.— 538  children  out  of  1,630  examined 

are  reported  as  having  defective  vision. 
Lowell,  Mass.— The  sight  of  45%  of  300  children 
examined  is  reported  as  being  defective,  "a  little 
less  than  two-thirds  of  the  defects  being  serious 
enough  to  need  correction."  In  another  examina- 
tion of  524  pupils  165  or  31%  were  found  to  have 
defective  vision.  The  number  of  these  who  were 
recommended  to  have  medical  treatment  was  137 
or  26%  of  the  whole  number.  In  still  another  test 
2,081  pupils  of  the  grammar  and  upper  primary 
grades  were  examined  and  44%  of  them  were 
found  to  have  defective  sight,  27%  of  them  need- 
ing special  treatment. 
Chicago,  III. — From  32%  to  41%  of  4,765  pupils  ex- 
amined are  reported  as  having  defective  sight, 
from  7%  to  16%  of  the  whole  number  being  re- 
garded as  serious.  In  another  investigation  in 
the  same  city  6,729  pupils  were  examined  with  the 
following  results:  Defoctive  in  one  or  both  ears, 
1,080  or  16% ;  defective  in  both  ears,  437  or  6.6%. 
Cleveland,  Ohio. — Whole  number  of  pupils  ex- 
amined in  1900-1901,  32,939.  Number  with  de- 
fects  of  special  senses   6,169,    of   whom   359  are 


348  Appendix  F 

reported  as  defective  in  hearing.  In  another  ex- 
amination the  following  year  the  sight  and  hearing- 
of  17,017  pupils  were  tested  with  the  following- 
results:  Number  of  pupils  with  defects  of  special 
senses  5,806,  of  whom  342  are  reported  as  defect- 
ive in  hearing. 

MiLiTON,  Mass.— Out  of  709  children  examined  195^ 
or  a  little  less  than  one-third  of  the  whole  num- 
ber, were  recommended  for  further  examination 
for  glasses. 

Wellesley,  Mass.— Number  of  pupils  examined  685, 
of  whom  23%  are  reported  as  needing  treatment 
on  account  of  defective  vision.  In  this  examina- 
tion only  30%  of  the  children  were  found  to  have 
normal  sight  and  89%  of  them  with  normal  hear- 
ing in  both  ears. 

Everett,  Mass.— Of  2,345  pupils  examined  1,167  are 
reported  as  having  perfect  vision  in  both  eyes. 
Of  the  others  539  were  advised  to  consult  an  oc- 
ulist. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.— Number  of  pupils  examined, 
50,000.  Of  these  28%  were  found  to  be  deficient 
in  eyesight  and  10%  in  hearing. 

Some  of  the  above  reported  tests  were  made  by 
specialists,  some  by  teachers  under  the  direction  of 
a  specialist  and  some  by  teachers  with  no  directions 
other  than  those  that  were  given  with  the  Snellen 
test  cards.  Of  course  the  tests  made  by  or  under 
the  direction  of  an  expert  oculist  are  more  accurate 
than  those  which  are  made  without  special  super- 
vision, but  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  defective 
sight  and  hearing  and  of  reporting  for  treatment 
the  more  serious  cases,  the  tests  made  by  teachers 
are  quite  satisfactory. 


School  Hygiene  349 

The  ' '  instructions  for  examination ' '  accompany-  How  tests  may 
ing  the  Snellen  test  cards  obtainable  from  publishers  ^^  ^^^^  ^y 
and  oculists  are  sufficiently  full  to  enable  the  teacher 
to    designate    those    whose    sight    is    but    slightly 
affected  and  also  those  whose  eyes  are  so  seriously 
affected  that  they  need  to  consult  an  oculist. 

Teachers  can  also  detect  defective  hearing  so  far 
at  least  as  to  know  what  pupils  need  professional 
treatment.  The  rule  sometimes  is  for  the  pupil  to 
stand  20  feet  away  from  the  examiner  and  to  pro- 
nounce the  word  or  words  given  by  the  examiner 
either  in  a  whisper  or  in  an  ordinary  conversational 
tone  of  voice.  Some  prefer  to  make  the  tick  of  a 
watch  the  test  of  hearing,  the  watch  being  four  feet 
away. 

One  kind  of  investigation  made  by  tha  physical   Investigation 
training  committee  of  the  Brookline,  Mass.,  Educa-  °^  the  physical 
tion   Society  deserves  attention,   on  accomit   of  its  ^j^^  puniis  lu 
unique  character  and  the  practical  results  it  prom-  Brookline, 
ises.     The  investigation  was  of  the  physical  coudi-  Mass. 
tion  of  the  children  and  the  hygiene  of  the  class 
rooms,  and  was  carried  on  with  the  assistance  of  the 
teachers    and    medical    inspectors.     The    questions 
asked  were  in  relation  to  the  pupils'  nutrition  ajid 
condition  of  spine,  and  the  ventilation,  lighting,  and 
temperature  of  the  schoolrooms. 

The  results  of  the  physical  examination  were  as 
follows  (22,  p.  22)  :  Out  of  2,594  children,  the  nutri- 
tion was  considered  to  be  excellent  in  1,603,  or  62% ; 
good  in  605,  or  24%;  fair  in  262,  or  10%;  poor  in 
104,  or  4%. 

In  the  same  number  the  following  di^foi-niities 
were  observed:  of  the  spine,  4;  of  the  chest,  7;  of 
the  extremities,  9;  of  the  head,  4. 

A  more  individualized  physical  examine  lion   was 


360 


Appendix  F 


made  by  the  same  committee  through  the  co-opera- 
tion of  some  physicians.  Sixty-one  boys  were  ex- 
amined, with  the  following  results,  in  part  (22,  p. 
23)  :  Percentage  of  pupils  having  poor  preservation 
of  teeth,  29.5;  abnormal  condition  of  throat,  54.1; 
abnormal  condition  of  heart,  24.6 ;  abnormal  de- 
velopment of  chest,  16.4. 

As  one  result  of  the  investigation,  the  committee 
strongly  recommended  that  certain  vacant  land  be 
left  an  open  space  for  a  playground  for  the  children 
of  the  neighborhood. 

Instruction 
Instruction  in         From  the  beginning  of  the  course  to  the  end  of  it, 
hygiene  careful  and  systematic  instruction  in  hygiene  should 

throughout  the  ^^  given,  .first  independent  of  anatomy  and  physi- 
course 

ology,  and  later  in  close  connection  with  those  sub- 
jects. 

It  is  not  the  place  here  to  suggest  methods  of  in- 
struction, and  yet  it  may  be  proper  to  state  that 
instruction  in  hygiene  will  be  effective  only  as  it 
is  made  concrete  and  applicable  to  everyday  ex- 
Instruction  to  perience.  Pupils  may  be  told  or  they  may  read 
be  practical.  from  the  book  all  the  rules  of  hygiene,  and  after- 
wards be  able  to  repeat  them,  and  yet  not  be  able 
to  see  their  application  so  far  as  their  own  lives  are 
concerned.  If  they  do  not  see  this  clearly,  and  do 
not  know  the  reasons  why  the  laws  of  health  should 
be  obeyed,  they  may  as  well  remain  in  ignorance. 
For  example,  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  grammar 
school  and  in  the  high  school  pupils  should  be  led 
not  merely  to  learn  the  fact  that  rapid  eating  is 
harmful,  but  to  know  why  it  is  harmful ;  not  merely 
to  say  that  pure  air  is  necessary  to  health,  but  to 
ascertain  from  measurements  whether  their  own  bed- 


School  Hygiene  351 

rooms  or  sehoolrooms  are  sufficiently  supplied  with 
it. 

There  is  not  a  fact  of  hygiene  connected  with 
school  conditions  or  home  conditions  which  might 
not  be  profitably  worked  out  by  the  pupils  them- 
selves. If  this  practice  of  applying  in  our  teaching 
to  everyday  life  the  principles  of  hygiene  were  uni- 
versal, there  would  be  in  time  less  reluctance  on  the 
part  of  school  authorities  to  provide  all  the  means 
possible  to  insure  conditions  of  health,  and  parents 
would  not  be  so  willing  as  many  now  are  to  defy  all 
the  principles  of  dietary  science. 

Speaking  of  the  ignorance  of  parents  respecting 
food,  Mrs.  Richards  says  (25,  p.  17)  :   "To  my  mind, 
there    is    but    one   efficient   remedy   for    this    gross 
ignorance  and  misapprehension  of  the  office  of  food, 
and  that  is,  to  have  the  science  of  food  taught  in  ^he  science -of 
all  our  public  schools.     Make  the  simple,  fundamen-  food  to  be  '     ' 
tal,    well-known   principles   of   diet   a   part   of   the  taught, 
natural  science  training  in  the  school,  add  interest 
and  point  to  the  teaching  by  classes  in  cooking,  not 
for  the  sake  of  the  dishes  prepared,  although  they 
should  be  well  done,  but  for  the  sake  of  the  illustra- 
tions they  give  of  the  principles  taught." 

General  Hygienic  Treatment 
Having  considered  the  dangers  to  health  to  which 
pupils  in  school  are  exposed,  we  ought  next  to 
ascertain  exactly  what  teachers  can  do  to  avoid  those 
dangers,  and  to  correct  faults  which  already  exist. 
The  first  means  which  suggests  itself  is  physical 
training.  The  use  of 

The    chief   direct   ends   of  physical   training   are  gymnastic  ex- 

Grcisos  fl>ii(i 

health  and  symmetry  of  body  and  grace  of  bodily  ^jj^jr  iimita- 
movements.       That  these  ends  are  promoted  to  any  tjons. 


352  Appendix  F 

degree  by  the  prevailing  gymnastic  practice  in  the 
schools  is  seriously  questioned  by  many  people. 
There  are  doubtless  gained  by  the  exercises  a  certain 
degree  of  muscular  strength  ^nd  increased  circula- 
tion of  the  blood ;  but  these  are  not  the  only  nor  are 
they  the  chief  conditions  of  health  most  needed  for 
our  pupils. 

"What  they  most  need  is  recuperation  or  rest  from 
mental  fatigue,  and  this,  it  is  believed,  is  not  gained 
by  the  tenseness  of  mind  required  in  sharply  follow- 
ing the  orders  of  a  leader  in  gymnastics.     Teachers, 
in  response  to  the  question  as  to  whether  they  or 
the  pupils  are  rested  by  such  exercises,  almost  in- 
variably answer  in  the  negative;   and  yet  they  have 
grown  in  favor  to  such  an  extent  in  some  places  as 
to  constitute  the  only  exercise  which  the  pupils  are 
permitted  to  have. 
Dissatisfaction        The  growing  doubt  as  to  their  use  as  a  means  of 
with  prevailing  promoting  health  is  shown  by  the  changed  character 
methods.  of    i\^q    exercises    recommended    by     directors    of 

gymnasiums.  The  dissatisfaction  with  prevailing 
methods  is  voice(i  in  the  following  statement, 
recently  made  by  a  prominent  director  of  physical 
culture  in  one  of  our  state  normal  schools  respecting 
the  system  in  common  use:  "I  believe  the  classifica- 
tion of  exercises  in  this  system  to  be  the  most 
scientific  and  effective,  but  I  want  to  protest  most 
earnestly  against  their  application,  as  so  often  seen, 
by  which  such  exercises  are  a  dose  of  repulsive 
medicine,  instead  of  the  natural,  voluntary,  joyous 
response  of  the  child."  In  other  words,  the  rec- 
reative elements  of  exercise  are  wanting  in  many  of 
the  gymnastic  exercises. 

These  elements,  it  is  believed,  may  be  supplied  in 
part  by  a  more  intelligent  application  of  the  prin- 


School  Hygiene  353 

ciples  underlying  the  best  systems  of  gymnastics, 
and  in  part  by  substituting  for  many  of  the  gym- 
nastic exercises  recreative  games  and  plays,  in  which  Recreative 
the  response  of  the  children  is  "natural,  voluntary  games  and 
and  joyous."  To  meet  successfully  the  desired  ends, 
the  games  should  be  such  as  to  enable  all  the  pupils 
to  join  in  them  voluntarily.  They  should  give 
abundant  opportunity  for  free,  joyous  and  fre- 
quently emulative  action.  They  may  be  educational 
in  character,  or  such  as  will  exercise  the  pupils' 
powers  of  observation,  imitation,  memory  and  judg- 
ment. 

To  accomplish  the  best  results,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  teacher  to  direct  and  oversee  the  games,* 
and,  if  she  is  sympathetic  enough,  to  participate  in 
them.  The  games  will  afford  the  best  opportunity 
for  profitable  child  study,  and  for  creating  in  the 
teacher  sympathy  with  and  interest  in  the  children. 

It  is  a  cheering  sign  that  in  many  places  the  recess, 
so  long  abandoned,  is  being  restored,  to  be  spent,  not  The  recess 
as  formerly  in  rough-and-tumble  sports  or  in  aimless  being  restored, 
idleness,  but  in  well-directed,  joyous  exercise,  which 
sends  the  children  back  to  their  studies  refreshed 
and  ready  for  work. 

The   following  carefully  selected   list  of  gamesf 

*  Miss  Brown,  of  the  Washington,  D.  C,  Normal  School 
(10,  p.  631),  recommends  dividing  the  class  into  two  or  three 
sections,  thus  freeing  the  children  from  apparent  direction  by 
the  teacher,  and  giving  her  an  opportunity  to  do  individual 
work. 

t  They  are  selected  from  the  list  of  games  given  and  describ- 
ed by  Superintendent  G.  E.  Johnson  in  Vol.  III.  of  the  Peda- 
gogical Seminary  and  from  "One  Hundred  Gymnastic  Games" 
prepared  by  ten  members  of  the  alumni  of  the  Boston  Normal 
School  of  Gymnastics.  These  are  very  valuable  contributions 
to  educational  literature,  and  should  be  witliin  roach  of  every 
teacher. 


354 


Appendix  F 


A  list  of  good 
games  recom- 
mended. 


will  suggest  what  may  be  played  by  children  of 
different  ages.  Some  of  them,  as  will  be  seen,  are 
appropriate  for  the  school  yard  alone,  while  others 
can  be  played  in  the  schoolroom  or  gymnasium,  or, 
if  there  is  no  gymnasium,  in  the  basement  playroom. 
Those  marked  S.  may  be  played  in  the  schoolroom, 
and  those  marked  G.  in  the  gymnasium  or  playroom. 
The  figures  indicate  the  grade  of  pupils  for  which 
the  games  are  best  adapted,  1  standing  for  the  pri- 
mary grade,  2  for  the  lower  grammar,  3  for  the  upper 
grammar  and  4  for  the  high  school. 


Bean  bags  in  a  circle,  S.,  Gr., 

1,  2,  3. 
All  lip,  S.,  G.,  2,  3,  4. 
Ball  hunt,  S.,  G.,  2,  3,  4. 
Beast,  bird  or  fish,  S.,  3,  4. 
Call  tag,  S.,  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Birds,  S.,  G.,  1,  2. 
Follow  the  leader,  S.,  G.,  1,  2, 

3,  4. 
Ducks  fly,  S.,  1,  2. 
Going  to  Jerusalem,  S.,  1,  2, 

3,   4. 
Catch  ball,  S.,  G.,  1,  2,  3. 
Guess  ball,  S.,  G.,  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Herr  Slap  Jack,  S.,  G.,  1,  2, 

3. 
Observation,   S.,   1,   2,   3,   4. 
Basket  ball,  G.,   3,  4. 
Ball  and  bases,  G.,  3,  4. 


Ball  stand,  G.,  3,  4. 
Bears  and  cattle,  G.,  3,  4. 
Black  and  red,  G.,  3,  4. 
Cat  and  rat,  G.,  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Hunt  the  fox,   G.,   1,   2. 
Steeple  chase,  G.,  3,  4. 
Dodge  ball,  G.,  2,  3,  4. 
Garden  scamp,  G.,   2,   3,   4. 
Hanging  cats,  G.,  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Jump  the  shot,  G.,  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Lame  fox  and  chickens,  G.,  1, 

2,  3,  4. 
Last  couple  out,  G.,  3,  4. 
Ninepins,   G.,   2,   3,   4. 
Stealing  sticks,  G.,  3,  4. 
The  billed  cat,  G.,  1,  2,  3,  4. 
Three  deep,  G.,  2,  3,  4. 
King's  castle,  G.,  2,  3. 
Fox  and  geese,  G.,  2,  3. 


All  of  the  above-named  games  marked  "G. "  and 
many  others,  like  "I  spy,"  "tag,"  "duck  on  the 
rock,"  may  be  played  on  the  playground.  There 
are  many  games  like  "geography,"  "assumed  char- 
acters,"   and    "authors,"   which   will    be   found   a 


School  Hygiene  355 

valuable  help  in  connection  with  the  regular  work 
of  the  school.* 

In  what  is  said  of  the  importance  of  games  and 
plays  as  school  exercises,  it  is  not  meant  that  gym- 
nastic exercises  have  not  a  distinctly  constructive  The  true  value 

and  corrective  value,  nor  is  it  meant  that  they  should  ^^  gymnastic 

exercises 
be    excluded    from   the    school.     Emphasis    is   here 

placed  upon  exercises  of  recreation  and  relaxa- 
tion, because  they  have  to  some  extent  been  discon- 
tinued in  the  abandonment  of  the  recess,  and  because 
in  the  strain  of  school  work  they  are  especially 
needed. 

In  the  thirty  minutes  allowed  daily  for  recesses, 
fully  two-thirds  of  the  time  should  be  given  to  the 
wholly  recreative  exercises.     If  any  more  than  the  , 

remaining  time  is  needed  for  gymnastics,  let  it  be 
taken  from  the  time  which  has  been  assigned  for 
recitation  and  study.  In  school  buildings  provided  Time  for  recre- 
with  a  gymnasium,  regular  semi-weekly  or  tri-  '^*^^^  exercises, 
weekly  periods  should  be  set  off  for  systematic  ex- 
ercise in  gymnastics, — periods  sufficiently  long  to 
give  opportunity  for  carefully  graded  class  and 
individual  work. 

That  the  effects  of  systematic  physical  training  are 
felt  in  other  ways  than  in  promoting  bodily  health 
should  be  realized  by  every  teacher.  Dr.  Hartwell 
says  (21,  p.  510):  "If  we  once  admit,  as  we  must 
admit,  that  thought  and  feeling,  judgment  and 
volition  are  inexpressible  and  ineffectual  except 
through  motor  acts,  and   that  motor  acts  are  ani- 

*  In  an  interesting  test,  given  recently  to  over  2,000  children, 
by  Mr.  Monroe  of  the  Westfield,  Mass.,  Normal  School,  it  was 
found  that  32  per  cent,  of  the  favorite  games  mentioned  were 
ball  games;  31  per  cent.,  chase  games;  and  10  per  cent.,  motion 
games.     Further  details  of  the  test  are  given  in  (24,  p.  1084). 


350 


Appendix  F 


Intellectual 
and  moral  ef- 
fects of  physic- 
al training. 


Ways  of  meet- 
ing the  needs 
of  individual 
pupils. 


Treatment  of 

individual 

pupils. 


mated  and  controlled  by  the  central  nervous  system, 
the  inference  is  clear  that  physical  training  is  an 
essential  element  in  the  development  of  mental 
health  and  power."  Of  the  beneficial  effects  of 
games  in  the  intellectual  and  moral  development  Dr. 
Lincoln  says  (16,  p.  71)  :  "These  games  are  well 
suited  to  bring  out  some  of  the  basal  traits  of  charac- 
ter and  intellect, — quick  sight,  dexterity  of  hand, 
agility,  lung  power,  voice,  speed,  endurance,  with 
love  of  fairness,  self-assertion,  will-power,  social 
instinct  and  general  experience  of  unveiled  human 
nature." 

Special  and  Individual  Treatment 
It  is  a  well-known  principle  of  education  that  the 
needs  of  individual  pupils  should  be  met  as  far  as 
possible.  This  principle  is  especially  important 
when  applied  to  physical  training.  It  is  applied  in 
every  case  of  eye  or  ear  defect  that  is  observed  and 
treated,  and  in  the  case  of  children  who  are  sent 
home  from  school  on  account  of  illness.  The  same 
principle  is  recognized  in  placing  defectives  in 
separate  schools  and  classes.  In  our  state  institu- 
tions for  the  blind,  deaf  and  feeble-minded  it  is 
found  very  important  to  give  individual  treatment 
to  the  inmates,  especially  to  those  of  the  feeble- 
minded school.  The  same  is  true  with  the  "abnor- 
mally defective"  schools  and  classes  already  alluded 
to. 

In  these  classes  special  and  individual  physical 
treatment  of  the  pupils,  such  as  manual  exercises, 
baths  and  gymnastics,  is  found  to  be  very  useful. 

As  time  goes  on  doubtless  the  treatment  will  be 
still  more  individualized,  with  the  view  of  prevent- 
ing possible  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  ills.     We 


School  Hygiene  357 

maj^  well  carry  this  process  of  individualization  still 
further  in  the  physical  treatment  of  normal-minded 
pupils  who  have  signs  of  physical  defects,  as  shown 
in  wrong  postures,  awkward  movements  and  mal- 
formations. A  recent  movement  in  Brookline  bids 
fair  to  do  much  in  this  direction.  Here  those  pupils 
who  are  found  to  need  corrective  exercises  are  ex- 
amined by  the  instructor  of  physical  training,  with 
a  view  of  prescribing  daily  home  and  school  exer- 
cises. In  the  clinic,  which  is  held  for  an  hour  once 
a  week,  a  careful  examination  is  made  of  the  pupils 
who  are  taking  the  special  treatment,  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  what  progress  is  made  and  what 
change  of  treatment  is  needed. 

It  is  on  such  special  and  preventive  lines  of 
treatment  for  abnormal  children  that  the  schools  of 
the  future  will  more  and  more  work.  It  will  not 
be,  however,  until  the  people  believe  in  a  policy  of 
prevention  rather  than  mere  restraint  and  punish-  Prevention 
ment  in  respect  to  crime.  It  may  be  that  society  better  than 
for  many  years  to  come  will  seek  to  protect  itself 
by  means  of  the  pound  of  retributive  cure  meted  out 
to  criminals;  but  more  and  more  apparent  as  time 
goes  on  will  become  the  effectiveness  of  the  ounce  of 
prevention  in  the  special  treatment  of  children 
and  youth  before  the  crimes  are  committed. 

Already  there  are  signs  of  an  awakening  realiza- 
tion of  the  value  of  reformative  measures  in  the 
quite  general  approval  among  thinking  people  of  the 
great  work  which  Mr.  Brockway  has  done  during 
the  past  few  years  with  the  prisoners  in.Elmira. 
Here  for  several  years  men  were  treated  according  Experience  in 
to  their  individual  needs  by  giving  them  baths,  mas-  Elmira,  N.  Y. 
sages,  physical  and  manual  exercises,  and  by  provid- 
ing for  them  study  and  useful  occupations,  with  the 


358  Appendix  F 

resvilt,  as  Mr.  Sanborn  has  pointed  out,*  "of  securing 
the  astonishing  percentage  of  more  than  seven  refor- 
mations out  of  every  ten  persons."  If  the  vahie  of 
special  hygienic  and  educational  treatment  of 
criminals  is  thus  marked,  what  cannot  be  said  of  the 
value  of  such  treatment  when  given  to  young  persons 
before  fixed  habits  are  formed? 

To  carry  out  the  needed -corrective  and  preventive 
treatment   for   abnormal   children,    as    well   as   the 
regular  constructive  work  for  all,  there  should  be 
employed,  in  addition  to  the  usual  force,  a  health 
A  health  officer  officer,   called   the   school  physician   or   director   of 
for  all  the  hygiene,  whose  duty  will  be  to  examine  from  time 

schools  needed,  ^q  time  the  pupils^  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
which  of  them  need  special  treatment,  and  to  pre- 
scribe what  that  treatment  shall  be.  His  diity  also 
will  be  to  inspect  the  hygienic  conditions  of  the 
schools,  and  to  recommend  needed  improvements. 
In  addition  to  these  duties,  he  will  direct  and  assist 
the  teachers  in  carrying  on  the  physical  training  of 
the  school,  both  in  its  educational  and  in  its  hygienic 
aspects. 

Thus  will  be  assured  in  education  the  same  con- 
sideration for  the  body  which  is  now  believed  to  be 
necessary  for  the  mind.  Physical  training  in  its 
broadest  sense  will  become  the  business  of  the  school 
no  less  in  the  special  correction  of  existing  ills  and 
the  prevention  of  greater  ones  than  in  the  more 
Health  of  bodj-  general  building  up  of  the  body.  Health  of  body 
and^of  mind.  will  be  regarded  not  only  as  coequal  in  educational 
importance  with  health  of  mind,  but  as  inextricably 
bound  lip  with  it,  both  in  the  processes  of  education 
and  in  the  ends  of  efficient  service  in  the  world. 

*  Papers  in  Penology,  February,  1900,  p.  29.     Elmira,  N.  Y. 


School  Hygiene  359 

List  of  Books,   Reports  and  Articles  to   which 
Reference  has  been  made  in  the  Preceding  Pages 

1.  Kotelmann,  Ludwig:  School  Hygiene.  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  1899. 

2.  Seventh  annual  report  of  the  Maine  State  Board 
of  Health.     Augusta,  Me.,  1892. 

3.  Burrage  and  Bailey:  School  Sanitation  and 
Decoration.     Boston,  1899. 

4.  Burnham,  "William  H. :  Outlines  of  School  Hy- 
giene in  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  H.,  No.  1, 
Worcester,  Mass.,  1892. 

5.  Report  of  the  Public  Education  Association  of 
Philadelphia,  1900. 

6.  Clark,  T.  M. :  Rural  School  Architecture. 
Washington,  D.  C,  1880. 

7.  Carpenter,  R.  C. :  article  in  the  Brickbuilder  for 
March,  1900.     Boston. 

8.  Woodbridge,  S.  H. :  Schoolhouse  Warming  and 
Ventilation.  Connecticut.  School  Document, 
No.  13,  1898. 

9.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  school  report  for  the  year 
1899. 

10.  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion for  1898. 

11.  Eulenberg    and    Bach:     Schulgesundheitslehre. 
Berlin,  1900. 

12.  Burgerstein    and     Netolitzky:     Handbuch     der 
Schulhygiene.     Jena,  1895. 

13.  Report   of  the   Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1898-99. 

14.  Whitcomb,  A.  K. :   An  address  upon  the  Physical 
Defects  of  School  Children.     Lowell,  Mass.,  1900. 

15.  Report  of  the  Chief  of  District  Police  and  in- 
spection department  of  Massachusetts  for  1891. 


360  Appendix  F 

16.  Lincoln,  D.  F. :    Sanity  of  Mind.     Boston,  1900. 

17.  Warner,  Francis :  The  Study  of  Children.  New 
York,  1897. 

18.  Rowe,  S.  H. :  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child. 
New  York,  1899. 

19.  Annual  report  of  the  superintendent  of  the 
Boston  public  schools.     March,  1900. 

20.  Text-book  of  Physiology,  edited  by  E.  A.  Schaef- 
er.      New  York,  1898. 

21.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1897-98. 

22.  The  Brookline,  Mass.,  Education  Society  Year 
Book  for  1899-1900. 

23.  Warner,  Francis :  The  Nervous  System  of  the 
Child.     New  York,  1900. 

24.  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  As- 
sociation for  1899. 

25.  Richards,  Ellen  H. :  Sanitary  Science  in  the 
Home.     Philadelphia,  1888. 

26.  Six  lectures  upon  school  hygiene,  delivered 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Massachusetts  Emer- 
gency and  Hygiene  Association.     Boston,  1885. 

27.  Richards  and  Woodman:  Air,  Water  and  Food. 
New  York,  1900. 

28.  Newsholme,  Arthur:  School  Hygiene.  Boston,. 
1901. 

29.  Shaw,  Edward  E. :  School  Hygiene.  New  York^ 
1901. 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elemen- 
tary Schools 


APPENDIX   G. 

It  is  not  feasible  in  a  work  of  this  kind  to  present 
a  plan  of  studies  which  can  be  fully  and  universally 
used.  The  most  that  may  be  done  is  to  offer  sug- 
gestions in  respect  to  helpful  programmes  of  pre- 
scribed work  and  to  submit  a  general  scheme  which 
may  be  a  guide  for  superintendents  and  others  in 
making  definite  courses. 

It  will  be  the  aim  here  first  to  give  some  statistics 
to  supplement  and  support  the  theories  given  in 
previous  pages  and  afterwards  to  bring  together  a 
few  suggestions  as  to  the  possible  arrangement  of 
studies  on  lines  already  laid  down.* 

In  discussing  the  general  features  of  a  course  of 
studies  it  was  said  that  "the  questions  involved  in 
making  a  course  of  studies  are  determined  by  con- 
siderations which  relate  to  the  child's  nature  and 
capacity,  and  by  the  ends  which  are  sought  to  be 
secured  in   education."     It  is  fair  to  presume  that  Considerations 

these  considerations  have  been  the  guide  of  persons  determining 

,  .        . ,  £    ^    J-  •  1  a  course  of 

m  makmg  the  courses  oi  studies  now  m  use,  and  any        ,. 

intelligent  presentation  of  a  new  course  or  revision 

of  an  old  one  should  be  governed,  in  some  degree  at 

least,  by  the  opinions  of  wise  educators  everywhere, 

as  embodied  in  the  courses  which  they  have  made. 

*  For  discussion  relative  to  the  making  of  a  Course  of 
Studies  see  pp.  68-124. 

(361) 


362  Appendix  G 

With  this  thought  in  mind  the  author  caused  to  be 
sent  to  various  places  in  this  country  blanks  calling 
for  significant  facts  in  relation  to  the  courses  and 
programmes  then  in  actual  operation.  A  few  of  the 
results  of  this  investigation  are  given  below  for  the 
purpose  of  supporting  some  of  the  statements  pre- 
viously made  relating  to  the  making  of  a  course  of 
studies.f  There  are  also  given  some  of  the  results 
of  other  investigations  made  upon  the  same  lines  as 
well  as  some  of  the  conclusions  embodied  in  well 
known  reports  upon  courses  of  studies. 

The  investigation  referred  to  above  related  to  the 
courses  of  studies  pursued  in  sixty  cities  and  towns 
which  might  fairly  be  considered  as  representative 
cities  and  towns  of  the  country.  The  following 
table  shows  the  number  of  cities  and  towns  in  which 
the  various  subjects  are  taught  and  in  what  grades 
the  subjects  are  taught.  It  should  be  said 
that  in  44  of  the  60  places  reporting  there  were  9 
grades  and  in  the  other  16  places  there  were  only  8 
grades. 

Table  I.  Showing  the  subjects  taught  in  various 
grades  in  sixty  cities  and  towns : 

TABLE  I                   Gr.    Gr.    Gr.     Gr.    Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr. 

BRANCHES  12345        6789 

reading 60      60      60      60      60  60  60  59  43 

writing 60      60      60      60      60  59  55  52  36 

spelling  (lists) 34      46      53      58      58  58  56  54  38 

J  anguage  and  composition .. .    51      57      60      60      58  55  51  47  41 

grammar -        -        -        2        4  15  34  51  40 

Latin -----145  12 

French  or  German -        -        -        -         1         1  3  2  3 

arithmetic 53      59      60      60      59  60  59  57  41 

algebra -        -        -        -        -        -  6  11  22 

geometry -        -        -        2         4         5  6  8  6 

history  and  biography 9       12      15      22      29  32  47  57  39 

geography* 9       14      23      38      40  40  41  39  24 

elem.  sci.  or  nature  study  ...    50      51       52      52      52  51  50  47  37 

singing 57      58      59      59      59  59  56  56  42 

drawing 58      58      58      58      59  59  59  58  43 

manual  training  or  cooking  .7        5        5      10      13  14  15  13  38 
*  41  places  reporting,  29  of  them  having  9  grades. 

f  A  full  report  of  this  investigation  is  given  in  the  Sixtieth, 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools  363 

From  the  above  table  it  appears  that  the  three  R's 
still  hold  the  most  prominent  place  in  all  the  grades. 
Singing   and   drawing  are   taught  in  nearly  every  Suljjects  gen- 
grade   of   all  schools  reported,    while   spelling  and  erally  included 
language   have   almost  as   good  a  showing.     Geog-  ^"  *  ^  course, 
raphy  and  history  are  almost  universally  taught  in 
the  upper  grades,  and  their  elements  are  not  neg- 
lected  in  a  large  proportion   of  the  lower  grades. 
If  the  supplementary  reading  in  these  subjects  had 
been  counted  there   would  doubtless   have   been  a 
better  showing  in  all  the  lower  grades. 

The  most  surprising  figures  are  those  given  in  con- 
nection with  elementary  science  or  nature  study. 
That  more  than  five-sixths  of  all  the  grades  below 
the  8th  and  a  scarcely  less  proportion  in  the  8th 
and  9th  grades  are  receiving  instruction  in  this 
branch  is  mose  gratifying.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  elementary  science  was  one  of  the  so-called 
high  school  branches  recommended  in  the  report  of 
the  Committee  of  Ten.  It  is  believed  that  it  has 
found  its  way  into  a  large  number  of  the  best  schools 
since  the  report  was  made.  The  other  branches 
recommended,  viz.,  Latin,  French  or  German, 
algebra  and  geometry,  have  not  fared  so  well,  and 
yet  more  than  one-half  of  the  whole  number  of 
courses  reported  have  in  them  one  or  more  of  these 
subjects. 

Accompanying  the  replies  from  which  the  above 
table  was  made  were  expressions  of  opinion  from 
superintendents  of  schools  or  principals  relating  to 
the  success  or  non-success  of  the  introduction  of 
•extra   studies   in  the    grammar   grades.     With   few 

Sixty-first    and    Sixty-second    Reports    of    the    Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Education. 


364 


Appendix  G 


Course  follow- 
ed in  English 
elementary 
schools. 


Course  in 
French  elemen- 
tary schools. 


exceptions  the  testimony  is  all  in  favor  of  a  retention 
of  the  studies. 

As  is  well  known,  the  subjects  of  instruction  in 
England,  France  and  Germany  are  determined  by 
the  central  government,  and  are  followed,  with 
minor  exceptions,  in  large  and  small  places  alike. 

In  England  the  public  elementary  schools  receive 
children  at  the  age  of  7  years.  The  course  of  7 
years  following  the  infant  school  course  includes 
the  following  subjects:  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
English,  and  geography. 

English,  geography,  elementary  science  and  needle- 
work (for  girls)  are  class  subjects,  but  only  two  of 
them  can  be  taken,  one  of  which  must  be  English. 
Drawing  and  singing  may  also  be  taught. 
Any  two  of  the  following  subjects  may  be  taken  by 
pupils  of  standards  V.,  VI.,  VII.  (last  three  years 
of  the  course)  :  algebra,  Euclid  and  mensuration, 
mechanics,  Latin,  French,  animal  physiology,  botany, 
principles  of  agriculture,  physics,  domestic  economy 
(for  girls). 

In  France  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  {ecoles  primaires  elementaires)  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Subjects  and  exercises  which  pertain  to  phys- 
ical education,  including  hygiene,  gymnastics,  mili- 
tary exercises  (without  arms),  manual  training. 

2.  Subjects  which  pertain  to  intellectual  educa- 
tion, including  reading,  writing,  French  language, 
history,  geography,  civics,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
drawing,  elementary  science  (animals,  plants, 
minerals,  physiology  and  the  elements  of  physics 
and  chemistry),  agriculture,  singing. 

3.  Subjects  pertaining  to  moral  education,  includ- 
ing the  memorizing  of  poems,  and  regular  talks  and 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools  365 

lessons  upon  duties  in  the  family,  in  society,  and  in 
the  state. 

The  above  course  covers  7  years,  from  the  age  of 
6  to  13  years. 

The  courses  of  higher  schools,  the  Scales  primaires 
superieures  and  the  cours  complementaires,  are  based 
directly  upon  the  work  done  in  the  lower  schools. 
The  first  year  of  these  courses  corresponds  with  the 
8th  or  9th  year  of  our  schools  and  adds  algebra  and 
either  German  or  English  to  the  above  subjects. 

In  Germany  there  are,  in  general,  two  kinds  of 
elementary  schools,   the  first  and  by  far  the  most 
numerous  being  the  public  schools,  which  are  free 
in  most  parts  of  the  empire.     These  schools,  known 
as  the  people's  schools  {Volkschulen)  or  community 
schools  (Gemeinde-schulen) ,  have  a  course  from  6  to 
8  years  in  length,  generally  8,  comprising  the  follow-  Subjects  of 
ing  subjects:   religion,  language  (German),  reading,  "j^^  p^^p^^^g '^ 
writing,  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  natural  his-  schools  of 
tory,  geometry,  physics,  drawing,  singing  and  gym-  Germany, 
nasties.     In  some  places  a  foreign  language  (either 
Latin,  French  or  English)  and  algebra  are  added  to 
the    course.     This    course,    unlike    the    elementary 
school  courses  in  France  and  America,  is  not  directly 
connected  with  the  high  school  courses,  inasmuch  as 
the    latter    courses    demand    much    more    foreign 
language  study  in  the   first  six  or  eight  years  of 
school  life  than  is  given  in  the  common  or  people's 
school. 

The   second   kind  of  elementary  schools   are    in- 
cluded in  the  lower  grades  of  the  various  kinds  of  Courses  in 
high  schools  and  the  preparatory  schools  ( Vorschul-  i>"'P!iratory 

en),  which  generally  have  a  course  3  years  in  length.  ,  '^*^'*''"" 

"  o  ^  -J  -   ^  l()W(!r classes  of 

Upon  the  supposition  that  the  elementary  course  ni  i,j^,|,  schools  in 

these  schools  covers  a  period  of  8  years,  3  years  in  Germany. 


366 


Appendix  G 


Report  of  the 
Committee  of 
Ten. 


Report  of  the 
Committee  of 
Fifteen. 


the  preparatory  school  and  5  years  in  the  high  school 
proper,  the  time  given  to  Latin  is  5  years ;  to  French 
or  English,  2  to  4  years;  and  to  Greek,  2  years,  in 
addition  to  the  subjects  mentioned  above.  The 
lower  grade  of  high  schools  does  not  teach  Greek 
and  the  girls'  high  schools  do  not  teach  either  Latin 
or  Greek. 

The  committee  appointed  by  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  known  as  the  "Committee  of 
Ten,"  recommended  in  its  report  of  1893,  in  respect 
to  subjects  not  ordinarily  pursued  in  grammar 
schools,  (1)  that  Latin  be  begun  in  the  grammar 
school,  (2)  that  German  or  French  be  begun  in  the  5th 
year  of  school  and  continued  through  the  course  of  8 
years,  (3)  that  algebraic  expressions  and  symbols  be 
used  in  simple  equations  in  connection  with  arithme- 
tic, (4)  that  concrete  geometry  be  studied  from  the 
5th  to  the  8th  year  inclusive,  and  (5)  that  natural 
history  and  elementary  science  be  taken  throughout 
the  course. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  read  at 
the  Cleveland  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence, in  1895,  recommended  that  the  following 
subjects  be  taught  (the  figures  denote  the  year  of 
school):  reading,  1-8;  penmanship,  1-6;  spelling 
lists,  4-6 ;  language  and  grammar.  1-7 ;  Latin  or 
French  or  German,  8;  arithmetic,  1-6;  algebra,  7, 
8;  geography,  2-8 ;  natural  science  and  hygiene,  1-8 ; 
history  of  United  States,  7,  8 ;  Constitution  of  United 
States,  8;  general  history  and  biography,  1-8; 
physical  culture,  1-8;  vocal  music,  1-8;  drawing^ 
1-8 ;   manual  training,  sewing  and  cooking,  7,  8. 

From  a  review  of  the  courses  pursued  in  the 
English,  French,  and  German  elementary  schools  and 
the  courses  recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Ten 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools  367 

and  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  is  practical  unanimity  in  respect  to  carrying 
on,  during  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  time,  reading, 
language,  penmanship  (including  spelling,  composi- 
tion, writing,  and  grammar),  arithmetic,  elementary 
science  or  nature  study,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
geography,  history. 

The  points  of  agreement  or  disagreement  in  all 
other  subjects  appear  in  the  following  table : 

Tabic  II.     Years  given  to  a  foreign  language,  alge-  Comparative 
bra,    geometry    and    manual    training,    in    English,  table. 
French,  and  German  courses  and  in  courses  recom- 
mended by  the  Committee  of  Ten  and  the  Committee 
of  Fifteen. 

[Letters  used  to  denote  the  courses  are  used  as  follows:  E. 
English  Public  Elementary  School.  Fr.  French  Elementary 
School.  G.  V.  German  People's  School.  G.  G.  Lower  classes 
of  the  German  Gymnasium  and  the  Preparatory  Department. 
G.  R.  Lower  classes  of  the  German  Eeal-Gymnasium  and  the 
Preparatory  Department.  G.  0.  Lower  classes  of  the  German 
Oberrealschul  and  the  Preparatory  Department.  T.  Eeport  of 
Committee  of  Ten.     F.  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen.] 

Latin,     ...  E*       5th,  6th,  7th. 

G.  G.  4th  to  8th. 
G.  R.  4th  to  8th. 
T.       Time  not  given. 

F.  Either    Latin,    French    or 

German,  8th. 
One  or  more  mod-  E*       5th,  6th,  7th. 
ern  languages.       G.  G.  7th,  8th. 

G.  R.  6th  to  8th,  French;    8th, 

English. 
G.  0.  4th   to   8th,   French;     7th 
8th,  English. 


368 


Appendix  G 


T.        5th    to    8th,    German    or 
French,  optional. 

F,  8th,   either  Latin,  French 

or  German. 
Algebra      .     .     .       E*       5th,  6th,  7th. 

G.  G.  Custom  varies  as  to  time 

and  extent. 
G.  R.  Custom  varies  as  to  time 

and  extent. 
G.  0.  Custom  varies  as  to  time 

and  extent. 
T.        With  arithmetic  in  latter 

part  of  the  course. 

F.  7th,  8th. 
Geometry       .     .        E*       5th,  6th,  7th. 

Fr.       All  grades. 

G.  V.  7th,  8th,  constructive  and 

demonstrative. 
G.  G.  Custom  varies  as  to  time 

and  extent. 
G.  R.  Custom  varies  as  to  time 

and  extent. 
G.  0.  Custom  varies  as  to  time 
and  extent. 
One  period  a  week  during 

last  4  years. 
Needlework    for    girls    re- 
quired in  all  grades. 
All    grades,  —  cardboard 
and  woodwork   for 
boys ;     needlework    for 
girls. 
G.  V.  Sewing  required  in  higher 
grades  of  girls'  schools. 
Optional.  F.         7th,  8th. 


T. 


Manual  Training      E. 


Fr. 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools  369 

Time  Limits 

In  the  inquiry  alluded  to  above,    information  was 

sought  respecting  the  time  devoted  in  recitation  to 

each    subject    pursued    in   the    elementary    schools. 

From  the  daily  programmes  of  76  schools  in  as  many 

different  municipalities  of  this  country  ten  typical  Recitation  time 

programmes   were    selected   for   careful   study   and  ^^^  ^^^^^  group 

_,  .  „  .  -.1     of  subjects  in 

comparison.     For   convenience   or    comparison   with  ^^^^  tvnical 

the  results  of  other  investigations  the  subjects  were   programmes. 

grouped  as  follows: 

1.  Language,  including  reading,  writing^  lan- 
guage lessons,  grammar,  Latin,  French,  German. 

2.  Mathematics,  including  number  work,  arithme- 
tic, algebra,  and  geometry. 

3.  Literature— history,  including  literature,  civil 
government  biography,  and  history. 

4.  Natural  science,  including  nature  study,  ele- 
mentary science,  and  geography. 

5.  Miscellaneous,  including  singing,  drawing,  and 
manual  training.  ^ 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  percentage 
of  recitation  time  given  in  each  grade  to  each  of  the 
first  four  groups  of  subjects  as  outlined  in  the  ten 
typical  programmes  mentioned  above. 

TABLE  III  Gr.    Gr.    Gr.  •  Gr.    Gr.    Gr.    Gr.    Gr.    Gr.  Aver- 

ORODPS  OF  8T0DIE8       1        13456789  age 

I.   Language 65.7  56.0  49.1   34.7  31.5  32.0  34.3  32.5  27.1         40.3 

II.   Mathematics....  14. 4  18.5   17.1    17.6   17.4   18.1    18.5  20.0  25.9         18.6 

ill.  Science 12.4   12.1    12.8  21.6  24.5  23.6  22.7   19.4   18.2         18.5 

IV.   Literature-history  7.4  13.1   20.8  25.8  26.2  25.8  24.2  27.7  28.6        22.1 

The  percentages  contained  in  the  above  tal)le  may 
be  regarded  as  a  fair  average  of  allotments  made  in 
the  designated  groups  of  studies  in  our  best  schools, 
and  represent  some  of  the  best  thought  of  the 
country  respecting  the  relative  value  of  these  groups. 


370 


Appendix  G 


Time  for  each 
group  in 
various  schools 
of  this  and 
other 
countries. 


In  the  report  from  which  the  above  table  is  taken 
a  careful  review  was  made  of  the  recommendations 
in  respect  to  time  allotments  of  the  Committee  of 
Ten,  and  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen.  Reference 
also  was  made  to  the  Elementary  Courses  of  France 
and  Germany,  and  to  an  investigation  in  California 
in  which  the  conclusions  of  educators  were  sought 
as  to  the  proportion  of  time  which  should  be  given 
in  each  grade  to  each  of  the  four  groups  of  subjects 
named  above.  Several  separate  tables  were  made 
embodying  these  recommendations  and  practices, 
and  upon  them  a  careful  estimate  was  made  as  to 
the  relative  time  which  should  be  given  to  each 
group  of  subjects  in  a  proposed  course.  The  follow- 
ing table  summarizes  all  the  results  given  in  per- 
centages of  time  allowed  for  each  group  of  subjects: 


TABLE  IV 

pupil's  age  and  grade 


CALIFORNIA 
REPORT 


^  a 


O  O 


j3  « 
S  ° 


as 


a3 

o  o 


(      I  65.7  50.0  85.0        -  -  -X  I  45 

Age  5  to  6,  called  Grade  1      ...)    II   14.4   16.6     5.0        -  -  -?-3lO 

in  Nine  Year's  Course 1  III  12.4  16.6     5.0       -  -  -5)30 

(   IV     7.4  16.6     5.0       -  -  -tc  (  15 

(      I  56.0  50.0  50.0  60.9  50.0  55.5        55 

Age  6  to  7,  Grade  1  or  Grade       )    II  18.5  16.6   15.0     9.7  14.2  16.6        15 

2 )  III   12.1    16.6   15.0   19.5  14.2  16.6         15 

(   IV  13.1   16.6  20.0     9.7  21.4  11.1        15 

(      I  49.1  50.0  50.0  60.9  50.0  50.0        50 

Age  7  to  8,  Grade  2  or  Grade       )    II  17.1   16.6  25.0     9.7  14.2  22.2        15 

3 )  III   12.8   16.6    10.0   19.5  14.2  16.6         15 

(  IV  20.8  16.6   15.0     9.7  21.4  11.1        20 

1      I  34.7  33.3  50.0  50.0  41.1  52.3        35 

Age  8  to  9  Grade  3  or  Grade        )    II  17.6  25.0  20.0   16.6  23.5  19.0        20 

4 J  III  21.6  25.0   15.0   23.3  23.5  14.2         20 

(    IV  25.8  16.6   15.0   10.0  23.5  14.2         25 

{      I  31.5  33.3  50.0  40.0  26.3  31.8        30 

Age  9  to  10,  Grade  4  or  Grade      )    II   17.4  25.0   20  0    14.2  21.0  18.1         20 

5 )  III  24.5  25.0   15.0   22.8  21.0  13.6         25 

(   IV  26.2  16.6  15.0  22.8  31.5  36.3        25 


General  Plan  of  Studies  Jor  Elementary  Schools  371 

(       I  32.0  33.3  40  0   37.7  26.3  32.0  30 

Age  10  to  11,  Grade  5  or  )    11  18.1  25.0  25.0   15.7  21.0  16.0  20 

Grade  6 )  III  23.6  25.0  20.0   23.2  21.0  16.0  25 

(   IV  25.8  16.6  15.0   23.2  31.5  36.0  25 

(      I  34.3  25.0  40.0  37.7  26.3  28.0  30 

Age  11  to  12,  Grade  6  or  )    U   18.5  25.0  25.0  15.7  21.0  20.0  20 

Grade  7 1  III  22.7  25.0  20.0  23.2  21.0  16.0  25 

(    IV  24.2  25.0   15.0  23.2  31.5  35.6  25 

(      I  32.5  25.0  35.0  18.5  -  28.0  30 

Age  12  to  13.  Grade  7  or               )    II  20.0  25.0  25.0  18.5  -  24.0  20 

Grades )  III   19.4  25.0  20.0  18.5  -16.0  20 

(   IV  27.7  25.0  20.0  44.4  -  32.0  30 

(      I  27.1  25.0  35.0  18.5  -  30.4  30 

Age  13  to  14,  Grade  8  or               )    II  25.9  25.0  25.0  18.5  -  26.0  25 

Grade  9 )  III   18.2  25.0  20.0  18.5  -17.3  15 

'    IV  28.6  25.0  20.0  44.4  -  26.0  30 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  above  table  has  no  refer- 
ence to  the  fifth  group  of  subjects  which  includes 
singing,  drawing,  and  manual  training.  To  this 
group  of  subjects  the  following  percentages  may 
perhaps  fairly  express  the  relative  time  which  should 
be  given  in  each  grade :  1st  grade,  24 ;  2d  grade,  24 ; 
3d  grade,  22;  4th  grade,  20;  5th  grade,  20;  6th 
grade,  20;   7th  grade,  20;   8th  grade,  20. 

A  readjustment  of  percentages  so  as  to  express 
the  relative  percentage  of  time  which  should  be 
given  to  each  of  all  groups  of  subjects  in  all  the 
grades  gives  the  following  table: 

Showing  the  approximate  percentage,  in  a  proposed  Approximate 
course  of  studies,  of  the  entire  recitation  time  of  a  po'centagc  of 
pupil  or  group  of  pupils  spent  in  I.  Language  {includ- 


rt'citatiou'time 


ill  a  proposed 
mg  reading,  writing,  spelling,   composition,  English  (.omse  for 

grammar  and  a  foreign  language),  II.  Mathematics  tlomentary 
(including  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry  and  book-  sc^iools. 
keeping),  III.  Elementary  science  (including  nature 
study,  physiology,  hygiene  and  geography),  IV.  His- 
tory (including  English  literature,  civil  government, 
biography  and  history  proper),  V.  Miscellaneous 
exercises  (including  singing,  drawing  and  manual 
training). 


372 


Appendix  G 


Actual  time  to 
be  spent  in 
each  group  of 
subjects. 


TABLE  V               Sub-  Gr.    Gr.     Gr.     Gr.    Gr.      Gr.  Gr.   Gr. 

GROUPS  OF  STUDIES       prim.  123.456  78 

I.   Language 29  40      37      28      24      24      24  24      24 

n.  Mathematics 6  12       12       15       16       16       16  16      20 

III.  Science 20  12       12       15      20      20      20  16       12 

IV.   History 10  12       15      20      20      20      20  24      24 

V.   Miscellaneous 35*  24      24      22      20      20      20  20      20 

♦Including  physical  exercises,  games,  manual  training,  form  study,  etc. 

The  above  percentages  may  be  said  to  represent 
fairly  the  present  relative  value  in  education  of  the 
given  groups  of  subjects  as  expressed  in  the  most 
carefully  planned  courses  of  study  in  this  country. 
Besides  serving  as  a  basis  for  further  investigations, 
it  is  hoped  that  they  will  serve  a  tv^^ofold  purpose, 
first,  in  testing  time  programmes  in  present  use,  and, 
secondly,  in  assisting  superintendents  and  teachers 
to  make  new  programmes.  To  show  a  possible  use  of 
the  table  in  the  latter  direction  the  following  time 
programme  is  given,  in  which  the  number  of  minutes 
a  week  of  recitation  time  is  found  after  subtracting 
from  the  entire  school  time  the  time  given  to  open- 
ing exercises,  to  study  or  busy  work  and  to  recesses 
and  physical  exercises,  the  school  day  being  51/2 
hours  long  and  there  being  5  days  in  the  week. 

Time  programme,  showing  the  number  of  minutes 
a  tveek  spent  in  recitation  by  a  pupil  or  group  of 
pupils  in  five  groups  of  subjects;  also  the  number  of 
minutes  a  week  given  to  opening  exercises  and  recesses 
and  to  study  in  school. 


TABLE  VI         Sub-       Gr.     Gr.     Gr.      Gr.  Gr.      Gr.      Gr.      Gr 

GROUPS  OF  STUDIES         pri.         1234  56          7          8" 

I.  Language 325       360     333     273     234  240     240     276     276 

II.  Mathematics....        75        108      108      146      156  160      160     184     230 

III.   Eiem.  Sci 225        108      108      146      195  200     200      184      138 

IV.   Hist.  &  Lit 125        108      135      195      195  200     200     276     276 

v.  Misc 450t     216     216     215     195  200     200     230     230 

Opening     exercises, 
physical  exercises 

and  recesses —       250     250     225     225  200     200     200     200 

Study  in  school —        500     500     450     450  450     450      300      300 

Total  school  time.  1,200    1,650  1,650  1,650  1,650  1,650  1,650  1,650  1,650 

♦Figures  in  this  column  indicate  the  number  of   minutes   spent    in 
recitation  and  busy  work  taken  together. 

tincluding  physical  exercises,  games,  kindergarten  occupations,  etc. 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools  373 

The  recitation  time  indicated  in  the  above  pro- 
gramme is  intended  to  include  the  time  more  or 
less  of  which  is  spent  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher,  or  which  is  spent  in  quiet  work  by  the  pupil, 
as  in  some  language  work,  nature  study,  drawing 
and  writing.  The  study  time  includes  only  the  time 
that  is  spent  by  the  pupil  without  direction  or  aid 
from  the  teacher. 

Of  course  the  time  allowed  for  busy  work  or  study 
will  depend  upon  the  number  of  sections  or  groups 
in  which  the  recitations  are  heard.  The  above  time 
programme  is  made  on  the  supposition  that  the  class 
or  school  is  divided  into  three  sections  in  the  first 
and  second  grades  and  into  two  sections  in  all  other 
grades,  and  that  in  some  of  the  exercises  the  three 
or  two  sections  recite  together. 

A  re-arrangement  of  the  above  table  so  as  to  in- 
clude literatur  in  the  language  group  changes  the 
percentages  in  the  first  and  fourth  group  as  shown 
in  the  following  table : 

Showing  the  approximate  percentage,  in  a  proposed  Percentage  of 

course  of  studies,  of  the  entire  recitation  time  of  a  time  with 

pupil  or  group  of  pupils  spent  in  I.  Language  {includ-  literature  in- 
.  ,.  ...  „.  -,•  Ti      7-  7    eluded  m  the 

mg  reading,  writing,  spelling,  composition,  Lngiish  ]^^„„^lage 

grammar  and  literature  and  a  foreign  language),  g,oup. 
//.  Mathematics  {including  arilhmdic,  algebra,  ge- 
ometry and  bookkeeping),  111.  Elemcntanj  science 
{including  nature  study,  physiology,  hygiene  and 
geography) ,  IV.  History  {including  civil  government, 
biography  and  history  proper),  V.  Miscellaneous 
exercises  {including  singing,  drawing  and  manual 
training).  ^ 


374: 


Appendix  G 


TABLE  VII.         Sub-      Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr.  Gr. 

GROUPS  OF  STUDIES    pri.       1  3          3          4  „5  „  „'^„  „7„  „„^„ 

I       Language  ...29.0     42.0  42.0  38.0  32.0  32.0  32.0  33.0  33.0 

II'     Mathematics.   6.0     12.0  12.0  15.0  16.0  16.0  16.0  16.0  20.0 

III      Science 20.0     12.0  12.0  15.0  20.0  20.0  20.0  16.0  12.0 

IV.'     History 10.0     10.0  10.0  10.0  12.0  12.0  12.0  15.0  15.0 

VI.     Miscellaneous  35.0*  24.0  24.0  22.0  20.0  20.0  20.0  20.0  20.0 

*Inc!uding  physical  exercises,  games,  manual  training,  form  study, etc. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  figures  in  the 
above  tables  indicate  the  average  for  the  year,  so 
that  if,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case,  it  is  desired  to 
limit  the  number  of  studies  pursued  at  any  one  time 
to  three  or  four,  the  aggregate  number  of  minutes 
and  the  average  percentage  of  time  for  the  year 
will  be  the  same  as  indicated  although  at  a  given 
time  there  may  be  a  greater  or  less  number  in  given 
studies.  For  example,  if  it  is  decided  to  carry 
on  geography  in  the  6th  grade  only  fifteen  weeks  of 
the  year,  (40  weeks)  the  average  weekly  time  spent 
upon  that  subject  will  be  determined  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  minutes  spent  a  day  by  15  and 
dividing  the  product  of  these  numbers  by  40. 


Suggested 
course  for  a 
sub-primary 
class. 


Suggested  Course  of  Studies  for  a   Sub-Primary 
Class  Admitting  children  five  years  of  age 

Language  and  Literature.— {Time  spent  daily  in 
recitation  and  busy  work  for  a  single  group  of 
pupils,  about  90  minutes.)  Story  telling,— selec- 
tions from  kindergarten  stories,  myths  and  fairy 
tales.  Reading  of  words  in  sentences  on  blackboard 
and  chart  and  on  picture  slips.  Reading  sentences 
from  blackboard  and  chart  and  on  picture  slips. 
Phonic  drill.  Some  analysis  and  synthesis  by  sounds. 
Writing  on  tracing  slips,  blackboard  and  paper. 
Large  movements. 

Number  and  Form. —  (Time  spent  daily,  about  15 
minutes.)  Fourth  and  fifth  kindergarten  gifts  for 
counting  and  combining. 


General  Plan  of  Studies  for  Elementary  Schools  375 

Nature  Study.— (Time  spent  daily,  about  45  rain- 
"utes.)  Recognition  of  common  plants  and  trees,  and 
their  principal  parts.  Observation  of  and  talks 
about  familiar  domestic  animals  and  birds.  Some 
resemblances  and  differences  noted.  Adaptation  of 
parts  to  uses  observed. 

Physical  and  Manual  Exercises.— (Tirae  spent 
daily,  about  90  minutes.)  Plays,  games  and  calis- 
thenics. Kindergarten  occupations,  including  sew- 
ing, weaving,  cutting,  folding,  peas-work,  clay-model- 
ling, bead-stringing,  chain-making,  drawing,  paint- 
ing, sketching  from  memory  and  imagination, 
kindergarten  and  nursery  songs. 

OuTiJNE  OF  A  Course  of  Studies  for  Primary  and 

Grammar  Schools 

The  following  outline  suggests  a  possible  adjust-  Outline  of  a 

ment  of  primary  and  grammar  school  work  to  the   course  for 

conditions    indicated.     While     it    is    probably    in-   P"™ary  and 

grammar 
sufficient  to  meet  fully  the  needs  of  any  system  oi  gdioois. 

schools,  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  fulfill  in  some  degree 
the  requirements  of  a  general  course,  upon  which 
more  detailed  courses  may  be  constructed  suited  to 
various  localities  and  conditions.  The  absence  of 
repeated  directions  to  review  previous  work  and 
to  follow  proper  lines  of  teaching  indicates  the  pre- 
sumption of  professional  ability  on  the  part  of 
teachers.  A  course  of  studies  is  not  a  manual  relat- 
ing to  methods  and  theories  of  teaching,  however 
useful  such  a  statement  of  methods  and  theories 
may  be  for  some  teachers.  Happy  is  it  for  those 
schools  whose  courses  of  studies  may  presuppose  the 
employment  of  teachers  whose  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  teaching  is  undoubted,  and  whose 
judgment  is  fully  trusted  in  the  selection  of  mate- 


376  Appendix  G 

rials  within  the  bounds  of  an  outline  not  greatly 
extended. 

It  should  be  understood  that  this  course  is  in- 
tended for  pupils  who  enter  school  at  six  years  of 
age,  and  who  come  either  from  the  kindergarten  or 
sub-primary  class.  Some  pupils  who  have  taken  the 
course  outlined  for  the  sub-primary  class  may  be 
able  to  take  the  work  outlined  for  the  1st  grade  in 
less  than  a  year. 

The  figures  in  the  left-hand  column  indicate  the 
year  and  semester  during  which  the  work  in  parallel 
columns  is  supposed  to  be  done.  For  example,  2' 
means  the  first-half  of  the  second  year.  The 
figures  in  decimals  above  each  year's  outline  of  work 
denote  the  approximate  percentage  of  recitation 
time  which  a  pupil  or  group  of  pupils  should  give 
to  the  allotted  group  of  subjects.  These  figures  are 
taken  from  Table  VI.,  page  372. 


Conrse  of  Studies 

for 

Primary  and  Grammar  Schools 


378 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.  (.42) 

<;jrade    (a)   Reading  and   literature     (b)   Writ- 
and  ing 

Semes-  .  . 

ter.     (c)  Oral  and  written  Composition  and 
Spelling. 

(d)  Memory  work. 

(e)  Grammar., 


GROUP  II. 

(a)  Arithmetic. 

(b)  Form  and  geometrical  Exercises. 

(c)  Algebra. 

Xd)  Book-keeping. 


(a)  Words  and  sentences  from  black- 
board, chart  and  reader. 

Analysis  and  synthesis  of  words  by 
sound. 

Careful  selection  of  folklore  and  fairy 
stories  told  by  the  teacher.  (See  list 
of  books) 


(a)  Combinations  of  numbers  to  ten 
with  and  without  objects.  Oral 
work  only  during  first  ten  weeks  Or- 
iginal story  problems  Use  terms  one- 
half  and  one-fourth  as  fractional  parts 
of  numbers.     Teach  quart  and  pint. 


(b)  Copying  words  and  sentences  from 
blackboard  and  slips.  Copying  sin- 
gle letters. 


(c)  Telling  of  stories  told  or  read. 


(d)  Learning  and  reciting  of  short  pieces- 
a  minimum  average  of  two  lines  a  day. 


(b)  General  comparison  of  blocks  in 
size-blocks  being  from  one  to  ten 
inches  in  length  and  one  inch  square 
at  base. 


(a)  Reading  easier  pieces  of  four  or  more 
first  readers. 

Analysis  and  synthesis  of  words  by 
sound  and  letter. 
Stories  continued. 


(b)  Copying  sentences  from  models  and 
writing  from  dictation. 
Correct  forms  of  single  letters  taught. 


(a)  Combinations  of  numbers  to  twenty 
with  and  without  objects. 

Teach  dozen,  quart,  gallon,  pint,  gill 
dime,  foot,  inch. 

Fractional    parts    of    numbers    (one- 
half,  one-third,  etc.) 
Original  and  fractional  problems. 

(b)  Comparison  of  edges  and  surfaces  of 
inch  cube  with  those  of  other  blocks 
(one-half,  one-third,  etc.) 


(c)  Telling  of  stories  told  or  read.  Dic- 
tation of  short  sentences.  Teach 
pupils  to  write  their  name;  school; 
town;  father's  (Mr.)  name;  mother's 
(Mrs.)  name;  teacher's  name.  Period 
and  question  mark. 

(d)  Learning  and  reciting  of  short  pieces. 
Review  first  half  year's  work  fre- 
quently — minimum  as  before. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


379 


GROUP  III.  (.12) 


GROUP  IV.  (.10) 


GROUP  V.  (.24) 


(a)  Nature    study    and    Ele-  (a)   History    and    biography     (a)   Drawing  and   art. 
mentary  science 

(b)  Geography  (b)  Civil  Government.  (b)  Manual  training 

(c)  Physiology  and  hygiene.  (c)  Singing. 


(a)  Recognition  of  common 
plants  and  trees.  Teach 
principal  parts. 
Observe  flesh-eating  ani- 
mals (dog,  cat)  for  habits 
and  adaptation  of  parts  to 
habits;  pictures  of  un- 
familiar animals  for  com- 
parison. 

(b)  Uses  of  plants  and  their 
parts. 

Uses  of  animals  and  their 
parts  to  man.  Animal 
productions, 

(c)  Simple  talks  upon  play- 
ing, sleei)ing,  eating;  also 
upon  clothing  and  home- 
life. 


(a)  The   telling   of   carefully     (a)  Free  illustrative  sketch- 
selected  folklore  and  fairy  ing  from  memory  and  im- 
stories  in  connection  with         agination.     The  solar  spec- 
the  work  in  literature.  truni    for    c<ilor    study    of 
pictures  for  story. 


(b)   Paper    folding    and    kin- 
dergarten weaving. 


(c)   Breathing     and     phonic 
exercises. 

Dictation      and      memory 
exercises.   Tone  building  on  ' 
music    ladder    (not    above 
fifth  tone). 
Rote  singing 


(a)  Recognition   of  common 
rocks. 

Buds  observed.  Naming 
of  common  plants  and 
trees. 


<b)  Uses   of   rocks    to    man. 

Mineral      productions. 

Uses   of   plants   and   trees 

and  their    parts. 

Vegetable  productions. 
<c)   Talks    upon    school    life 

and  streets. 

Talks     u[)on     body    as    a 

whole,  parts,  habits,  etc. 


(a)  The  telling  of  carefully 
selected  folklore  and  fairy 
stories  in  connection  with 
the  work  in  literature. 


(a)  Blackboard  drawing,  free 
nu>\eiiit'nt .  Straight  lines 
aii<l    cupM's. 

Drawing  from  nature  sim- 
ple    gra.ssos     and     flowers 
n«ing  colored   crayons. 
Six  standard  colorn 

(b)  Tape  and  rug  woaviiig. 
Rafiu  braiding  and  sewing 


(r)    Breathing   and    phonic 
F.xcrci^cM 
Tone  builrliiig 
Rote  singing 


380 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.  (.42) 
Grade    (a)  Selections  in  the  order  of  difficulty 


and 
Semes- 
ter. 


2 


from    several    first    readers.     Telling 
and    reading    of    carefully    selected 
folklore  and  fairy  stories. 
Analysis  and  synthesis  of  words  con- 
tinued. 


(b)  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation. 
Practice  upon  forms  of  single  letters, 
if  needed. 

Oral  and  written  compositions  (repro- 
ductions, etc.)  daily. 
Common  abbreviations  Uses  of  Cap- 
itals. Dictations  for  correct  forms 
words,  of  spelling,  etc. 
Memory  work  reviewed  and  con- 
tinued. 


GROUP  II  .  (.12) 

(a)   Numbers  from  one  to  one  hundred  :- 

(1)  Combinations  of  tens  and  of  tens 
with  other  numbers. 

(2)  All  combinations  to  fifty,  no 
added  or  subtracted  number  or  multi- 
plier or  divisor  to  be  greater  than  ten. 

(3)  Application  to  familiar  weights 
and  measures.  Comparisons  in  prob- 
lems. 

(4)  Fractional  parts  of  numbers. 

(5)  Original  problems. 

(6)  Volumes  and  surfaces  of  inch 
cube  and  two  inch  cube  compared. 
Perimeters  of  inch  cube  and  of  other 
cubes  compared. 


1 


(a)   Easier   portions   of   several    second 

Telling  and  reading  folklore  and  fairy 
stories  continued. 

Daily  phonic  drill  for  enunciation  and 
v/ord  building. 


(b)  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation 
with  pen  and  ink. 

Teach  correct  forms  of  single  letters, 
if  needed. 


(a)  Numbers  from  1  to  100: — 

(1)  All  combinations,  the  added  or 
subtracted  number  or  multiplier  or 
divisor  to  be  at  first  not  greater  than 
10 — afterward  greater  than  10. 

(2)  Applications  to  familiar  weights 
and  measures.  Comparisons  in  prob- 
lems. 

(3)  Fractional  parts  of  numbers 

(4)  Original  problems 

(b)  Comparison  in  size  of  prisms  each 
of  whose  bases  is  one  inch  square. 
Comparison  of  surfaces  of  same  prisms 


(c)  Oral  and  written  compositions 
(reproductions,  etc.)  daily. 
Dictation  for  teaching  use  of  capitals, 
common  abbreviations,  period,  inter- 
rogation and  exclamation  mark. 
Spelling  of  common  words. 

(d)  Memory  work   reviewed   and   con- 
tinued. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


381 


GROUP  III.  (.12) 

(a)  Common  plants  and 
trees  recognized  and 
named; 

OVjserve  grass  eating  an- 
imals (cow,  horse,  sheep) 
for  habits  and  adaptation 
of  parts  to  habits. 
Use  pictures  of  unfamiliar 
animals  of  same  class  for 
comparison. 


GROUP  IV.  (.10) 

(a)  Telling  and  reading  of 
stories  adai)ted  to  matur- 
ity and  needs  of  children. 
Select  with  reference 
to  season  and  to  what  is 
done  in  nature  study  and 
reading.  (See  list  of 
books.) 


GROUP  V.  (.24) 

(a)  Illustrative  drawing 
Study  of  pictures  for  story 
Memory  and  imagination 
sketches  with  help  of  live 
objects,  (birds  and  an- 
imals) 

Six    standard    colors   with 
water  colors. 


<b)  Useful  vegetable  and 
animal  productions.  Lo- 
cation of  plants  observed. 
Position,  direction  and 
relative  distances 


(b)   Paper    folding    and    cut- 
ting. 

Rafia     weaving,     braiding 
and  sewing. 


(c)  Simple  lessons  continued 
with  playing,  eating, 
sleeping,  clothing  and  life 
in  the  home  and  school 
room. 


(c)   Breathing     and 
exercises. 
Tone  building 
Rote  singing. 


phonic 


(a)  History  of  plant  life 
from  seed  to  seed.  Ob- 
serve bean  and  pea. 
Plant  .several  kinds  of 
seeds  for  observation  and 
comparison. 

Observe  and  name  com- 
mon plants  and  trees  of 
neighborhood  and  culti- 
vated plants. 

(h)  Plants  and  parts  used 
for  food  and  clothing. 
Use  of  seeds  to  man. 
Forms  of  water.  Direc- 
tion and  distance  applied 
to  familiar  bodies  of  land 
and  water. 

Animal  and  vegetable  pro- 
ductions of  the  town. 

(c)  Lessons  upon  use  and 
care  of  five  .senses.  Spec- 
ial exercises  to  develop 
each  sense. 


(a)  Telling  and  reading  of 
stories.  Select  with  ref- 
erence to  capacity  of 
children,  to  the  season  and 
to  what  is  done  in  nature 
study  and  reading.  (See 
list  of  books.) 


(a)   Blackboard      drawing; 
related  curves  and  straight 
lines. 

Drawing  from  nature  sim- 
ple grasses  and  flowers, 
using  water  colors. 


(b)   Ruling    lines    of   definite 
lengths  and  division.-s. 
Cutting   to   line   with   scis- 
sors. 

Rafia     weaving,     braiding 
and  sewing. 
Garden  work. 


(c)   Breathing     and 
exercises. 
Tone  building 
Roto  .singing 


phonic 


382 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.  (.38) 

Grade    (a)   Difficult  portions  of  second  readers 
and         and  carefully  selected  folklore,  fairy 

Semes-      tales  and  myths. 
ter.   . 


(b)  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation. 


GROUP  II.  (.15) 

(a)  Numbers  to  1,000. 

(1)  Addition,  subtraction,  multipli- 
cation and  division,  with  and  without 
objects. 

(2)  Applications  to  familiar  weights 
and  measure.?. 

(3)  Comparison  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures with  different  units. 

(4)  Original  problems 

(b)  Comparison  of  surfaces  of  cubes  and 
prisms  with  surface  of  inch  cube. 
Comparison  of  perimeter  of  known 
surfaces  with  perimeter  of  square 
inch. 


3' 


(c)  Daily  composition  (oral  and  written) 
and  dictation  exercises.  Attention 
given  to  abbreviations,  spelling, 
punctuation,  use  of  correct  words  and 
correct  forms  of  words. 


(d)  Pieces  of  previous  year  reviewed. 
Carefully  selected  prose  and  poetry 
continued. 


(a)  Third  readers  and  books  of  cot- 
responding  grade.  Selected  stories 
continued.     (See  list  of  books.) 


(a)  Numbers  to  1,000. 

(1)  All  operations. 

(2)  Applications  in  common  weights 
and  measures  with  comparisons. 

(3)  Original  problems. 


(b)  Copying  and  writing  from  dictation. 


(b)  Measurements  of  familiar  surfaces 
and  practical  applications.  Com- 
parisons with  various  units. 


3' 


(c)  Daily  composition  and  dictation 
exercises.  Attention  given  to  spell- 
ing, punctuation,  use  of  capitals, 
choice  of  words  and  forms  of  words; 
also  to  clearness  and  originality. 

(d)  Memory  work  reviewed  and  con- 
tinued. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


383 


GROUP  III.  (  15) 

^a)  Recognizing  and  naming 
common  plants  and  trees 
and  grouping  according  to 
habitat. 


GROUP  IV.  (.10) 

(a)  (1)  Stories  connected 
with  history  of  town  and 
neighborhood,  pioneers  and 
traditions. 

(2)     Thanksgiving      and 
Christmas  celebrations 


GROUP  V.  (.22) 

(a)  Free-hand  drawing  of 
plants  and  other  common 
objects.  Hues  of  color  by- 
means  of  colored  papers- 
and  in  washes. 


(b)  Home  geography  in- 
cluding local  surroundings 
and  industries. 

Facts   relating   to   surface, 
soil,   and   productions. 
Primitive  peoples  and  oc- 
cuiiations. 

(c)  Previous  work  reviewed. 
Lessons  connected  with 
playing,  working,  resting, 
eating,  clothing  and  clean- 
liness. 

Comparison     of     parts     of 
body    with    corresponding 
I)arts  in  lower  animals. 
Adaptation    <A    each    part 
to  special  use. 


(b)  Garden  work 

Rafia    work    in     baskets, 
mats,  dolls'  hats,  etc. 


(c)  Breathing,  phonic  dic- 
tation and  memory  exer- 
cises continued.  Tone 
building  in  music  ladder. 
All  tones  of  scale.  Rote 
singing. 


(a)  (1)  Study  birds  for  hab- 
its and  adaptation  of  parts 
to  habits.  Comi)arative 
study  of  feathers. 

(2)  Changes  in  plant  and 
animal  life  in  spring. 
Grouping  of  plants  ac- 
cording to  habitat;  time 
of  appearance,  etc.  Life 
history  of  corn  compared 
with  bean  and  pea. 

(b)  Home  geography  con- 
tinued. Study  of  the 
world  as  a  whole,  in- 
cluding land  and  water 
surfaces. 

Weather  record 
Making  oi  plans  and  maps. 
To|)ics  relating   to   history 
and      nature      wtudy      re- 
quirements. 

(c)  As  in  first  half 


(a)  (1)  Stories  of  local 
history  and  pioneer  life 
continued. 

(2)  Celebration  of  Wash- 
ington's birthday  and  bat- 
tles of  Lexington  and  Con- 
cord. 


(a)  Illustrative  drawing 
Drawing  of  animals  in  ink, 
silhouette  or  color. 
Harmonious     arrangement 
of    one    color    with    black, 
white  or  grey. 

Drawing  of  grasses,  leaves 
and  flowers  from  nature  in 
color.  Use  of  floral  ele- 
ments in  borders  or  surface 
patterns  iti  color. 
Original  designs 

(b)  CuttiiiK  units  of  design 
Hufia  work  in  baskets, 
napkin  rings,  mats,  dolls' 
hats  etc. 


(i)  Rreathing,  phonic  and 
tone  exercises  continued. 
Roto  singing.  Study  of 
notes,  rests,  etc.  Keys  of 
C  and  (;.  Two  part  ex- 
ercises and  songs. 


384 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.  (.32) 

Grade    (a)  Literature    and    information    read- 
and         ing  suited  to  the  interest  and  capacity 

Semes-      of  pupils.     (See  list  of  books.) 
ter. 


GROUP  II.  (.16) 

(a)  (1)  Integers  to  one  million.  Addition, 
subtraction  multiplication  and  divi- 
sion. 

(2)  Common  fractions;  halves, 
fourths,  eighths,  thirds,  sixths, 
twefths. 

(3)  Simple  business  transactions. 

(4)  Common   weights  and   measures 

(5)  Comparisons  with  various  units. 


(b)  Instruction  to  pupils  who  need  it. 


(b)  Angles,  and  areas  of  rectangles  and 
other  parallelograms. 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  (*brnposition  and 
dictation  exercises,  giving  attention 
to  spelling,  punctuation,  use  of  capi- 
tals, choice  and  forms  of  words:  also 
clearness  conciseness,  originality  and 
fluency  of  expression. 

(d)  Memory  work  reviewed  and  con- 
tinued. 


(a)  Literature  and  information  reading 
suited  to  the  interest  and  capacity 
of  pupils.     (See  list  of  books.) 


(a)  (1)  Integers  unlimited. 

(2)  Common  fractions    to    twefths* 
decimal  fractions  to  hundredths. 

(3)  Applications  in  simple  business 
transactions  and  in  common  weights 
and  measures. 

(4)  Comparisons  in  examples  and 
problems  with  various  units. 


(b)   Instruction  to  pupils  who  need  it. 


(b)  Areas    of    triangles    and    practical 
applications. 


(c)   Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises  continued. 


(d)   Memory   work   re\'iewed    and  con- 
tinued. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


385 


GROUP  III.  (.20) 

(a)  (1)  Plant  and  its  parts: 
parts  of  leaves  and  flowers; 
change  of  flowers  to  fruit 
and  seed. 

(2)  Animals:  recogni- 
tion, habits  and  adaptation 
of  parts.  Cycle  of  animal 
life  as  shown  in  frog  :group- 
ing  of  known  animals. 


(b)  Local  physiography  and 
local  commerce. 
Topics  of  home  life;  man- 
ufacturing plants. 
Topics  suggested  by  na- 
ture study  and  history 
requirements. 


(c)  Previous  work  reviewed 
and  continued.  Lessons 
upon  occupations  in  va- 
rious kinds  of  climate  and 
need  of  ipure  air  in  sleep- 
ing rooms. 

Lessons  upon  good  and 
bad  kinds  of  food  and 
drink. 


GROUP   IV.  (.12) 

(a)  (1)  Telling  and  read- 
ing of  stories  connected 
with  discoveries  and  ex- 
plorers, especially  of  the 
home  state  and  neighbor- 
ing states. 

(2)  National  stories  con- 
nected with  history  of 
Judea,  Egypt  and  Greece. 


GROUP  V.  (.20) 

(a)  (1)  Free-hand  drawing 
in  any  apiiropriate  med- 
ium of  plants,  fruits  and 
other  objects  (spherical). 
Analysis  of  leaves  and 
flowers  for  color  schemes. 

(2)  Study      of      famous 
paintings     for     center     of 
interest  and  emphasis. 
Tint  and  shades  in  water 
color 
Original  designs. 

(b)  .Accurate  drawings  with 
ruler  involving  i",  i", 
i",  and  cutting  in  card- 
board. 

Simple  constructive  de- 
signs 

Card  picture  frames  and 
the  like,  of  good  propor- 
tions 

Basket,  hat  and  rug  mak- 
ing 

(c)  Breathing  and  tone  ex- 
ercises. Exercises  and 
songs  in  key  of  C.  G.  and 
F. 

Two  part  songs. 


(a)  (1)  Pebbles,  sand  and 
clay  with  reference  to  life 
history  of  rocks.  Observe 
crystals  and  show  how 
they  may  be  found. 

(2)  Effect  of  heat  on 
■water  and  air. 

(3)  Kecognitionfof  plants. 
Changes  in  nature  and 
their  relation  to  plants, 
animals  and  man. 

(4)  Movement  and 
changes  in  moon.  Observe 
star  grou|)S. 

(b)  (1)  General  topics  upon 
North  America. 

United  States  as  a  whole 
and  in  -secticjris  by  topics. 
State  and  town  by  topics. 
Topics   related   to    history 
requirements. 

(2)  Special  lessons  on 
climate. 

(c)  Previous  work  reviewed 
and  continued 

Lessons  ut)on  proper  kind 
of  clothing,  ventilation, 
heating,  lighting,  water 
8up[)ly  and  sewerage. 
Lessons  u[)on  good  and 
bad  personal  habits,  and 
avoidance  of  di.sease. 


(a)  (1)  Stories  connected 
with  early  home  history 
continued. 

(2)  National  stories  con- 
nected with  history  of 
Rome  and  England, 


(a)  Drawings  in  mass  of 
animals  and  children  in 
interesting  attitudes. 
Drawings  in  any  appropria- 
ate  medium  of  leaves  and 
flowers  from  nature.  Ap- 
})licati(>n  in  border  and 
surface  patterns  in  color. 
Study  of  tints  and  shades 
of  one  color  in  design. 


(b)  Cutting      of      geometric 
forms  in  thin  wood. 
Making    of    useful    articles 
in  cardboard 
Garden  work 


(c)  Breathing  and  (one  ex- 
ercises and  songs  in  key  of 
C.  G.  and  F. 


380 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.  (.32) 

Grade  (a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest  and 
and         capacity  of  pupils.    (See  list  of  books.) 

Semes-      Information  reading  with  reference  to 

ter.         requirements    in    history,    geography 

and  nature  study.     (See  list  of  books.) 


GROUP  II.  (.16) 

(a)  (1)  Common  fraction: — Addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication  and  divi- 
sion; decimal  fractions  to  thousandths 
all  operations. 

(2)  Applications  and  comparisons 
with  common  weights  and  measures 
and  in  business  transactions. 

(b)  Kinds  and  areas  of  polygons. 


5' 


(b)  Instruction  for  those  who  need  it. 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises  continued.  (See 
outline  for  grade  IV.) 


(d)  Memory   work   reviewed   and   con- 
tinued. 


(a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest 
and  capacity  of  pupils.  (See  list  of 
books). 

Information  reading  with  refer- 
ence to  the  requirements  in  his- 
tory, geography  and  nature  study. 
(See  list  of  books.) 


(a)   (1)  Common  and  decimal  fractions: 
all  operation-i  unlimited. 

(2)   .\p|ilications    and    comparisons 
in  business  transactions. 


5' 


(b)  Instruction  for  those  who  need  it. 


(b)  Areas  of  surfaces  of  cube  prism  and 
square  pyramid. 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises  continued.  (See 
outline  for  Grade  IV.) 


(d)  Memory    work   reviewed   and    con- 
tinued. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


387 


GROUP  III.  (.20) 

(a)  Plants  and  parts  con- 
tinued, emphasizing  roots 
and  stems. 

Study  of  leaves  and  barks 

of     trees.        Grouping     of 

plants. 

Study     of     rock     forming 

minerals,      quartz,      mica, 

feldspar,      etc.       Building 

stones. 

Motion     and     pressure     in 

solids,  water   and  air. 

(b)  Topics  upon  the  United 
States  Types  of  moun- 
tain, lake  and  river  sys- 
tems. Types  of  natural 
productions 

Topics  related  to  history 
and  nature  study  require- 
ments. 

(c)  Use  and  care  of  ski», 
nails,  hair,  and  sense  or- 
gans. Effects  of  alcohol 
and  tobacco. 


GROUP  -IV.   (.12) 

(a)  (1)  Spanish  and  Portu- 
gues  e."iplorers  and  settlers 
in  .\merica. 

(2)  Stories  connected 
with  history  of  Spain  and 
Portugal. 


GROUP  V.  (.20) 

(a)  (1)  Free-hand  drawing 
any  medium  of  plants, 
fruits  and  simjile  spheri- 
cal and  cylindrical  objects. 
Analysis  of  leaves  and 
flower.*  for  color  schemes. 

(2)   Study       of       famous 
paintings  for  centre  of  in- 
terest and  emphasis.     Sub- 
ordination accessories. 
Hues  in  water  color. 

(b)  Modifications  of  poly- 
gons for  objects  of  silk 
reel,  badge,  etc.  Con- 
struction in  appropriate 
material. 

Making  of  common  use- 
ful articles  in  card,  wood 
or  iron. 

(c)  Breathing  and  tone  ex- 
ercises continued. 

Work  in  chromatic  inter- 
vals. 

Exercises  and  songs  in  all 
keys. 


(a)  (1)  Minerals  continued. 
Continue  study  of  changes 
in  heat  on  water  and  air. 
Apply  to  phenomena  of 
seasons.  Changes  in  posi- 
tion of  sun. 

(2)  Insects:  study  of  one  for 
type  of  insect  life, — grass- 
hopper or  butterfly ;  ada|)- 
tation  of  parts  to  habits; 
metamorphosis.  Relation 
of  known  insects  to  man 
as  useful  or  injurious. 

(b)  United  States  con- 
tinued. 

Types    of    climate,     trade 
centres,     occupatif)ns    and 
manufacturing  centres. 
Topics    related    to    history 
requirements. 

(c)  Previous  work  reviewed. 
Description,  use  and  care 
of  muscles,  bones,  joints, 
nerves  and  brain.  Effects 
of  alcohol  and  tobacco 


(a)  (1)  English  and  Dutch 
e.xplorers  and  settlers  in 
America 

(2)  Stories  connected 
with  the  history  of  Eng- 
land and  France. 


(a)  (1)  Drawings  in  mass  of 
animals  and  children  in 
interesting     attitudes. 

(2)  Illustrative  drawing 
in  other  studies.  Study 
of  analagous  coloring;  re- 
lated hues  in  design. 

(3)  Drawings  of  plants 
and  insects  from  nature  in 
any  apprr)pri!itc  medium. 
Arrangement  in  spaces, 
applications  in  borders, 
surface  imttcrns  and  ro- 
settes in  color. 

(b)  Development  of  surface 
of  pyramids  in  cardboard. 
Applications  in  thin  wood. 
Wood  or  metal  working 
in  making  common  useful 
articles. 

(c)  Breathing    and    tone   ex- 
ercises Continued. 
Exercises  and  songs  in  all 
keys. 


388 

« 

GROUP  1.  (.32) 

Grade  (a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest  and 
and  capacity  of  pupils.    (See  list  of  books.) 

Semes-      Information  reading  with  reference  to 

ter.         requirements    in    history,    geography 

and  nature  study.     (See  list  of  books.) 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  II.  (.16) 

(a)   (1)  Metric   system   of  weights   and 
measures  and  applications. 
(2)  Percentage  and  simple  applica- 
tions in' business  problems. 


6' 


(b)  Instruction  for  those  who  need  it. 


(b)  Solid  contents  of  cubes  and  rec- 
tangular prisms,  with  application  in 
practical  problems. 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  composition 
and  dictation  exercises  continued. 
(See  outline  for  Grade  IV.) 


(d)   Memory   work   reviewed    and   con- 
'  tinned. 


(a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest 
and  capacity  of  pupils.  (See  list  of 
books.) 

Information  reading  with  reference 
to  requirements  in  history,  geography, 
and  nature  study.  (See  list  of  books.) 


(a)  (1)  Practical  problems  in  denom- 
inate numbers,  using  the  common 
and  metric  systems. 

(2)  Business   transactions   and   ac- 
counts. 


6' 


(b)   Instruction  for  those  who  need  it. 


(b)  Measurements  of  circles. 
Areas     of    surfaces    of     prisms 
cylinders. 


and 


(c)  Daily     and     weekly     composition 
and    dictation     exercises    continued. 
(See  outline  for  Grade  IV.) 
(d)  Memory  work  reviewed  and  con- 
tinued. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


389 


Group  III.  (.20) 

(a)    (1)   Study  of  trees,  fruits 
and  dispersion  of  seeds. 
Grouping  of  plants 

(2)  Study  of  common 
metals  and  their  ores — iron, 
copper,  etc. 

(3)  Observation  of  birds 
as  to  habits,  etc. 


(b)  Historical  associations 
and  commerce  of  the  great 
cities  of  United  States. 
Great  traffic  routes 
Industrial  and  commer- 
cial development  of  va- 
rious sections  of  U.  S. 
Topics  related  to  history 
requirements 

(c)  Uses  of  food.  Proper 
foods  and  drinks.  Habits 
of  eating  and  drinking. 
Digestive  tract — parts,  use 
and  care.  Effects  of  al- 
cohol and  tobacco. 


GROUP  IV.  (.12) 

(a)  (1)  Colonial  history  of 
Virginia,  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania.  Chief 
events  and  stories  of  prin- 
cipal persons. 

(2)   Persian  Wars 
Greecian    history.     Stories 
of    Marathon,    Platea    and 
Salamis. 


GROUP  V.  (.20) 

(a)  (1)  Drawing  in  any  me- 
dium of  plants  and  common 
objects.  Analysis  of  leave 
and  flowers  for  color 
schemes. 

(2)  Study  of  famous 
jiaintings  for  centre  of 
interest  and  emi)hasis, 
grouping  of  accessories 
for  leading  lines. 

(3)  Working  drawings  in 
connection  with  indus- 
trial work. 

(b)  Wood  and  card  work  for 
boys  from  working  draw- 
ings. 

Sewing    and     cooking     for 
girls. 


(c)  Three  part  exercises  and 
songs. 

Introduction       of      minor 
scales. 


(a)  (1)  Combined  effects  of 
heat  and  gravity  on  water 
and  air,  absorption,  trans- 
fer and  radiation  of  heat 
by  solids  and  liquids. 

(2)  Comparison  of  parts 
f)f  birds  with  correspond- 
ing parts  of  vertebrates. 

(3)  Clusters  of  flowers 
in  maple,  elm,  horse  chest- 
nut, oaks  and  birches', 
tree  fruits. 

(b)  Canada  and  Mexico 
Distribution     of    races    in 
North     America;       glacial 
period  in  N.  America 
Mathematical     geography 
relating      to      change      of 
seasons,     day     and     night, 
isothermal  lines,  tides. 
Topics  relating  to  history 
requirements. 

(c)  Description  of  parts 
and  uses  of  lungs  and  rf- 
lated  organs  Jircathing 
exercises  ventilation. 
Effects  of  tobacco  and  al- 
cohol 

Description  and  uses  of 
heart  and  V)lood  vessels. 
(Circulation  Effects     of 

air.  I'^xercise  and  cloth- 
ing. Cuts  and  woun<is. 
Effects  of  tobacco  and  al- 
cohol. 


(a)  (1)  Colonial  history  of 
Massachusetts:  chief 
events  and  stories  of  prin- 
cipal persons. 
]Curoi)ean  wars  related  to 
America. 

(2)   Roman      history: 
The  Punic  Wars 
The  Scipios 


(a)  (1)  Drawings  in  mass  of 
animals  and  children  in 
interesting  attitudes.  Il- 
lustrative drawing  in  other 
studies.  Study  of  analo- 
gous coloring,  related  lines, 
in  design. 

(2)  Plant  forms  in  ap- 
propriate medium.  Ar- 
rimgeinents  in  spaces  of 
different  shapes.  Appli- 
cations in  borders,  surfaces, 
rf)scttes,  etc.,  in  color. 

(b)  Wood  and  card  work  for 
boys  from  working  draw- 
ings. 

Sewing    and    cooking    for 
girls. 


(c)   Previous    exercises    con- 
tinued. 


390 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.  (.33) 

Grade   (a)  Literature    suited    to    the    interest 
and         and  capacity  of  pupils.     (See  list  of 
Semes-      books).  .  >         r 

ter.  Information  readmg  with  reference 
to  requirements  in  history,  geo- 
graphy and  nature  study.  (See  list 
of  books.) 


GROUP  II.  (  16) 

(a)   Insurance,   commission,   profit   and 
loss,  taxes,  duties,  interest. 


(b)  Measurements  and  problems  re- 
lating to  angles  and  areas  of  surfaces 
of  pyramid  and  cone. 


7 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises.  (See  outline  for 
Grade  IV.) 


(d)  Memory   work    reviewed    and    con- 
tinued. 

(e)  Ideas    and    words.     Thoughts    and 
sentences.     The  Sentence.     Kinds  of 
Sentences  with  respect  to  meaning 
Parts  of  speech:    General  uses,  defi- 
nitions and  applications. 


(a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest  and 
capacity  of  pupils.  (See  list  of  books.) 
Information  reading  with  reference  to 
requirements  in  history,  geography 
and  nature  study.     (See  list  of  books.) 


(a)  Business  transactions  and  accounta 
involving  problems  in  banking,  stocks, 
and  bonds,  etc. 
Ratio  and  proportion. 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises.  (See  outline  for 
Grade  IV.) 


(b)  Solid  contents  of  cylinder,  pyramid, 
cone,  sphere  and  frustrum  of  pyra- 
mid and  cone. 


(d)  Memory  work  reviewed  and  con- 
tinued. 

(e)  Subject  and  predicate:  objects  and 
complements.  Phrases,  clauses  and 
sentences.  Kinds  of  sentences  in 
respect  to  form. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


391 


GROUP  III.  (.16) 

(a)   Composite       family       of 
grasses  and  grains. 
Coal ;  combustion  and  can- 
dle flame  products. 


(b)  Topical  study  of  Ger- 
many, Holland,  Austria 
and  british  Empire  and 
colonial  possessions. 
Topics  related  to  history 
requirements. 


(c)  Home  hygiene  in  respect 
to  bathing,  clothing,  care 
of  eyes,  sleep  and  recrea- 
tions. Emergencies  in 
bandaging  and  splinting, 
convulsions  and  uncon- 
sciousness. 

Structure  of  lungs.  Ef- 
fects of  respiration  upon 
air  and  blood.  Generation 
of  heat  in  body. 


GROUP  IV.  (.15) 

(a)   Topical  study: 

(1)  Colonial  history  of  U. 
S.  Causes  of  revolution 
traced  from  the  beginning. 

(2)  Chief  events  of  ref- 
ormation in  Continental 
Europe  and  puritan  refor- 
mation in  England. 


(b)  Local  town  and  county 
governments  Officials  by 
whom  chosen,  duties,  etc. 
State  government: 
Branches;  function  of  each 
branch; 

Officials;        — by        whom 
chosen,  terms,  duties,  etc. 


GROUP  V.  (.20) 

(a)  (1)  Drawing  in  any  me- 
dium of  plants  and  com- 
mon objects. 

Illustrative  drawing  in 
other  studies. 

Analysis  of  beautifully  col- 
ored objects  for  color 
schemes. 

(2)  Study  of  famous  paint- 
ings for  composition  of 
line  and  of  light  and  shade 
or  mass. 

(b)  Wood  working  for 
boys  from  working  draw- 
ings. 

Needle  work  for  girls. 


(c)  Previous    exercises   con- 
tinued. 


(a)  Typical  marine  animals: 
starfish,    oyster    or    clam, 
lobster  or  crab.     Compare 
with  vertebrates  (fish). 
Rose  family 

Composition   of  air,   water 
and  various  foods. 
Some  principles  of  acous- 
tics. 


(b)  Topics  upon  Russian 
Empire,  Norway,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Italy,  France, 
liclgium 

Topics    related    to    history 
reriuirements. 

(c)  Home  hygiene  in  respect 
to  prei)aration  of  food, 
habits  of  eating  and  drink- 
ing, caro  of  lungs.  I^fTects 
of  dii.it.  standing  water, 
refu.w  and  noxious  gases. 
Disinfection. 

Care  of  invalids 
Emergencies     in     choking 
and    accidental    ixiJMotiing, 
drowning,  sufTocation,  etc. 


(a)  Topical  study  in  U.  S.: 

(1)  Chief  events  from 
177.5  through  Madison's 
administration 

(2)  Chief  events  of  Ro- 
man Empire  and  French 
revolution. 


(b)  Topical  study  of  State 
government  continued. 
Topical  study  of  I'liitcd 
States  government: 
branches;  function  of  each 
branch;  officials,  qualifica- 
tions, terms,  duties,  etc. 


(a)  (1)  Drawing  in  any  me- 
dium of  children  in  inter- 
esting attitudes  and  of  de- 
tails of  interior  of  room. 
Free-hand  ix-rspectivc 
Story  of  Christian  archi- 
tecture and  ornaiiiont. 

(2)  .Vdaptation  of  nat- 
tural  forms  to  j)Uri)oses  of 
decorative  designs.  Apjili- 
cations  to  initials,  head  and 
tail  iiiecps,  etc.  in  black 
and  while  and  color. 
Complementary  colors  in 
designs. 

(b)  Wood    working   for   boys 
from  working  (Irawings. 
Needle  work  for  girls. 


(c)   Previous    oxerci.ses    con- 
tinurd . 


392 


Appendix  G 


GROUP  I.   (.33) 

Grade    (a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest  and 
and         capacity     of     pupils.     (See     list     of 
Semes-     books.) 
ter.  Information    reading    with    reference 

to  requirements  in  history,  geog- 
raphy and  nature  study.  (See  list  of 
books.) 


GROUP  II.   (.20) 


(a)   Definitions,  rules  and  formulas. 
Miscellaneous  exercises. 


(b)  Definitions,  problems  and  theo-. 
rems  relating  to  angles,  lines,  and 
sides  and  areas  of  triangles  and  of 
parallelograms. 


8' 


(c)  Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises.  (See  outline 
for  Grade  IV.) 


(c)  Algebraic  notation  and  simple 
problems.  Addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  division  and  factor- 
ing. 


(d)  Memory  work  reviewed  and  con- 
tinued. 

(e)  Kinds,  forms  and  uses  of  nouns, 
pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  adverbs, 
prepositions  and  conjunctions. 


(a)  Literature  suited  to  the  interest 
and  capacity  of  pupils.  (See  list  of 
books.) 

Information  reading  with  reference 
to  requirements  in  history,  geog- 
raphy and  nature  study.  (See  list 
of  books.) 


(a)   Definitions,  rules  and  formulas. 
Miscellaneous  exercises. 


8' 


(o)Daily  and  weekly  composition  and 
dictation  exercises.  (See  outline 
for  Grade  IV.) 


(b)  Definitions,  problems  and  theo- 
rems relating  to  circles  and  similar 
polygons,  and  to  prisms,  pyramids, 
spheres,  cylinders  and  cones. 


(c)  Reduction  of  fractions.  Resolv- 
ing of  equations,  with  two  un- 
known quantities,  involution  and  evo- 
lution. 

(d)  Simple  form  of  accounts. 


(d)  Memory   work   reviewed   and   con- 
tinued. 

(e)  Rules  of  syntax  and  applications. 
Analysis  of  sentences. 


Outline  of  a  Course  of  Studies 


393 


GROUP  III.  (.12) 

(a)   (1)   Poisonous  plants  and 
trees 

(2)  Cohesion,  gravity  and 
heat 


(b)  (1)  Topics  upon  coun- 
tries and  colonies  in  Africa 
and  South  America. 

(2)  Comparative  study 
of  climate  and  climatic 
influences  and  of  vegata- 
tion  in  different  latitudes 
and  conditions. 


('•''  Public  hygiene:  Rela- 
tion of  personal,  home  and 
school  hygiene  to  public 
h  e  a  1  t  h.  Requirements 
of  pure  food,  water  and 
air.  Protection  from  dis- 
ease, alcohol  and  other 
poisons.  Boards  of  health. 
Protection  and  adultera- 
tion of  food  supply.  Pro- 
tection of  water  supply. 
Means  of  prevention  of 
water  from  pollution. 


GROUP  IV.  (.15) 

(a)  (1)  Topical  study  of  U. 
S.  history  from  1815  to 
present  time. 

(2)  English  in  India  and 
Africa.  Revolt  of  Span- 
ish American  (iroviuces. 
Greek  wars  of  independ- 
ence. 


(b)  Topical  study  of  U.  S. 
government  continued. 
Election  and  aiirioiutment 
of  officials.  Terms  of 
office  and  duties  of  officials. 
Civil  service.  Principles 
and  basis  of  local  govern- 
ment. 

Duties  of  citizens 
Local   questions   discussed 


GROUP  V.  (.20) 

(a)  (1)  Drawing  in  any  me- 
dium of  common  objects. 
Illustrative  drawings  in 
other   studies. 

Analysis  of  beautifully  col- 
ored natural  objects  for 
color  schemes. 

(2)  Study  of  famous 
paintings  for  composition 
of  line  and  of  mass. 

(b)  Gardening  and  work  of 
previous  grades  continued. 


(c)  Previous    exercises    con- 
tinued. 


(a)   (1)  Sight,      Sound      and 
Electric-it  y 

(2)   Injurious  insects; 
time  and  method  of  exter- 
mination. 


(b)  (1)  Topics  upon  coun- 
tries of  Southern  Europe. 
Japan  and  Chinese  Em- 
I)ire. 

Comparative  study  of 
winds  and  their  effects — 
and  of  states  of  society. 


(c)  Public  hygiene:  Dangers 
from  im[)ure  air.  Pro- 
tection from  impure  air. 
Sanitary  regulations  for 
tiublic  buildings.  Plvimb- 
ing.     Removal  of  garbage 


(a)  (1)  Topical  general  re- 
views such  as  American 
Indians:  negro  slavery; 
political  parties;  inven- 
tions; growth  of  territory; 
the  tariff;  growth  of  in- 
dustries; territorial  ex- 
pansion; civil  service  re- 
form. 

Questions  connected  with 
current  events. 

(2)  Union  of  German 
and  Italian  .States.  Re- 
volt of  Spanish  .\mcrican 
j)rf>vinces.  Greek  wars  of 
independence. 

(b)  Principles  of  state  gov- 
ernment: basis;  object 
of  laws;  relation  of  each 
branch  to  each  other; 
duties  of  citizens  and  of 
officials;  state  questions 
discussed. 

Principles  of  national  (gov- 
ernment :  the  cotistitut  Ion  ; 
national  question.s;  rights 
and  duties  of  nations;  war 
and  arbitration. 


(a)  (1)  Drawings  in  any  me- 
dium of  children  in  inter- 
esting attitudes,  and  of 
details  of  interiors  of 
buildings.  Freehand  per- 
s|)ective.  Story  of  pre- 
Christian  architecture  and 
ornament. 

(2)  -Vilaptation  of  nat- 
ural forms  to  purposes  of 
decorative  ilesigii.  Appli- 
cations in  book  covers, 
title  pages,  etc.  Comple- 
mentary groui)s  of  colors 
in  design. 

(b)  Work  of  Seventh  grade 
continued. 


(c)   Previous    exercises    con- 
tinued. 


394  Appendix  G 


aad  sewerage.  Regula- 
tions concerning  stables, 
etc.  Dangerous  and  of- 
fensive employments. 
Protection  from  contagion. 
Care  and  isolation  of  the 
sick.  Special  school  hy- 
giene. Protection  from 
alcohol  and  other  poisons. 


List  of  Books 

Following  are  the  list  of  books  to  which  reference 
has  been  made  in  the  foregoing  course  of  studies. 
It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  books  of 
literature  and  books  of  information.  Some  of  the 
books  classed  as  literature  may  not  properly  belong 
there  by  a  strict  definition  of  that  term,  and  some 
belonging  under  both  heads  are  for  the  sake  of 
brevity  placed  under  only  one.  Many  of  the  books 
assigned  to  one  class  of  pupils  may  with  profit  be 
used  in  other  classes.  Those  books  designated  for 
the  first  three  grades  are  books  which  may  be  read 
to  the  pupils  of  those  grades  by  the  teacher  or  be 
read  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

Selections  to  which  allusion  has  been  made  in  the 
course  of  study  may  be  found  in  the  books  recom- 
mended. 

Books  of  Literature  (Grades  I,  II.  and  III) 

^sop's  Fables 

Adventures  of  a  BrowTiie  (Mulock) 

Alice  in  Wonderland  (Carroll) 

Bailey  Book  (Bailey) 

Bible  Stories,  2  vols.  (Modem  Readers'  Bible  Series) 

Blue  Fairy  Book  (Lang) 

Child  Life  in  Prose  and  Verse  (Whittier) 

Children's  Garlands  (Patmore) 

Child's  Garden  of  Verse  (Stephenson) 

Christmas  All  the  Year  Round  (Howells) 

Classics  in  Baby  Land  (Bates) 


A  List  of  Books  395 

Classic  Myths  (Gayley) 

Doings  of  the  Pansy  Family  (Peck) 

Dream  Children  (Scudder) 

Fables  and  Folk  Stories  (Scudder) 

Fables  and  Rhjones  (Thompson) 

Fairy  Tales  (Anderson) 

Fairy  Tales  (Grimm) 

Heart  of  Oak  Series  I,  II 

In  the  Child's  World  (Poulsson) 

In  Mythland  (Beckwith) 

K^indergarten  Stories  (Wiltse) 

King  Kindness  (Walls) 

Miscellaneous  Stories  (Ewing) 

Nature  in  Verse  (Lovejoy) 

Nature  Myths  (Cooke) 

Old  Greek  Stories  (Baldwin) 

Old  Stories  of  the  East  (Baldwin) 

Old  Stories  Retold  (Binner) 

Old  Testament  Stories  (Houghton) 

Open  Sesame,  vol.  I 

Poems  for  Children  (Ewing) 

Poetry  for  Children  (Eliot) 

Poetry  for  Children  (Lamb) 

Poetry  of  the  Seasons  (Lovejoy) 

Rainbows  tor  Children  (Child) 

Southerji  Stories  for  Little  Readers  (Harcourt) 

Stories  for  Children  (Wiggin) 

Stories  for  Children  (Lane)  * 

Stories  of  King  Arthur  (Hansen) 

Story  of  Milo  (Kuck) 

Sunshine  Land  (Thomas) 

Books  of  Information  (Grades  I.,  II  and  III) 

All  the  Year  Round,  4  vols.  (Strong) 

American  Life  and  Adventure  (Egglcston) 

Aunt  Martha's  Comer  Cupboard  (Kirby) 

Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands  (Shaw) 

Brooks  and  lirook  liasiiis  (Frj'e) 

Child's  Book  of  Nature,  Vol.  1  (Hooker) 

Friends  in  Feathers  and  Fur  (Johonnot) 

Geographical  Nature  Studies  (Payne) 

Grandfather's  Storie.s  (Johonnot) 

Historic  Boys  and  Girls  (Brook.s) 


396  Appendix   G 

Home  Geography  (Long) 

Learning  About  Common  Things  (Abbott) 

Little  Folks   in  Feathers,  etc.  (Miller) 

Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands  (Chaplin) 

Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe 

Little  People  of  Asia  (Miller) 

Madam  How  and  Lady  Why  (Kingsley) 

My  Saturday  Bird  Class  (Miller) 

Nature  Stories  (Bass) 

Nature's  Byways  (Ford) 

Queer  Little  People  (St  owe) 

Rab  and  His  Friends  (Brown) 

Seed  Babies  (Morely) 

Snow  Baby  (Peary) 

Stories  for  Children  (Hale) 

Stories  of  Animal  Life  (Bass) 

Stories  of  Plant  Life  (Lane) 

Stories  of  Colonial  Children  (Pratt) 

Stories  of  Massachusetts  (Hale) 

Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  (.\ndrews) 

The  Wide  World 

Books  of  Literature  (Grades  IV,  V  and  VI) 

A  Ballad  Book  (Bates) 

Adventures- of  Ulysses  (Lamb) 

Among  the  Hills  (Whittier) 

Arabian  Nights,  Stories  from 

Ballads  and  Tales  (Golden  Rod  Books) 

Ballads  of  New  England  (Whittier) 

Bible  Readings  (Schaeffer) 

Bible  Stories  (Modern  Readers  Bible  Series) 

Biographical  Stories  (Hawthorne) 

Book  of  Legends  (Scudder) 

Children's  Hour  etc.  (Longfellow) 

Children's  Treasury  of  English  Song 

Child  Life  in  Prose  and  Verse  (Whittier) 

Choice  English  Lyrics  (Baldwin) 

Cricket  on  the  Hearth  (Dickens) 

Cruise  of  the  Dolphin  (Aldrich) 

Fairy  Life  (Golden  Rod  Books) 

Fairy  Tales  (Anderson) 

Fairy  Tales  in  Prose  and  Verse  (Rolfe) 

German  Household  Tales  (Grimm) 


A  List  of  Books  397 

Gods  and  Heroes  (Francillon) 

Golden  Treasury  of  Songs  and  Lyrics  (Palgrave) 

Grandfather's  Chair  (Hawthorne) 

Greek  Heroes  (Kingsley) 

Gullivers  Travels  (Swift) 

Heart  of  Oak  Books  (III) 

Heroes  of  Asgard 

Hiawatha  (Longfellow) 

Household  Tales  (Grimm) 

Jackanapes  (Ewing) 

King  Arthur  and  His  Court  (Greene) 

King  of  the  Golden  River  (Ruskin) 

I^ights  of  the  Round  Table 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  (Macaulay) 

Little  Daffydowndilly  (Hawthorne) 

Little  Lord  Fauntleroy  (Burnett) 

Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood  (Pyle) 

Myles  Standish,  The  Courtship  of  (Longfellow) 

Nature  in  Verse  (Lovejoy) 

New  England  Legends  (Drake) 

Nurnburg  Stove 

Old  Greek  Folk  Stories  (Peabody) 

Old  Greek  Stories  (Baldwin) 

Old  Stories  of  the  East  (Baldwin) 

Old  Testament  Stories  in  Scripture  Language 

Open  Sesame  Vol.  II. 

Our  Country  in  Poem  and  Prose  (Persons) 

Pied  Piper  and  Other  Poems  (Browning) 

Pilgrim's  Progress  (Bunyan) 

Popular  Tales  from  the  Norse  (Dasent) 

Profitable  Tales  (Field) 

Rab  and  His  Friends  (Brown) 

Robin  Hood,  Adventures  of  (Pyle) 

Robinson  Crusoe  (Defoe) 

Round  the  Year  in  Myth  and  Song  (Holbrook) 

Six  Tales  from  Arabian  Nights  (Eliot) 

Squirrels  and  Other  Fur-Bearers  (Burroughs) 

Stories  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  (C'hurch) 

Stories  from  Old  English  Poetry  (Richardson) 

Swiss  Family  Robinson  (Wyss) 

Tanglewood  Tales  (Hawthorne) 

Tales  of  a  Grandfather  (Scott) 

Tales  from  Shakespeare  (Lamb) 


398  Appendix  G 

Tent  on  the  Beach  (Whittier) 

The  Birds'  Christmas  Carol  (Wiggin) 

The  Building  of  the  Ship  etc.  (Longfellow) 

The  First  Jungle  Book  (Kipling) 

Ulysses,  Adventures  of  (Lamb) 

Water  Babies  (Kingsley) 

Wonder  Book  (Hawthorne) 

Books  of  Information  (Grades  IV,  V  and  VI) 

A  Hunting  of  the  Deer  (Warner) 

American  History  Leaflets  (Hart  and  Channing) 

American  Indians  (Starr) 

American  Leaders  and  Heroes  (Gordy) 

Animals  Wild  and  Tame  (Davis) 

Around  the  World  (Carroll) 

Biographical  Sketches  (Hawthorne) 

Birds  and  Bees  (Burroughs) 

Bird  Ways  (Miller) 

Bird  World  (Stickney-Hoffmann) 

Black  Beauty  (Sewall) 

Book  of  Legends  (Scudder)) 

Boy's  Froissart  (Lanier) 

Boy's  Percy  (Lanier) 

Boys  of  '61  (Coffin) 

Boys  of  '76  (Coffin) 

Boys  of  Other  Countries  (Taylor) 

Building  of  the  Nation  (Coffin) 

Cast  Away  in  the  Cold  (Hayes) 

Children  of  the  Cold  (Schwatka) 

Children's  Life  of  Abraham  Lincohi  (Putnam) 

Children's  Stories  of  American  Literature  (Wright) 

Child's  Book  of  Nature  Vol.  2  (Hooker) 

Claws  and  Hoofs  (Johonnot) 

Coal  and  Coal  Mines  (Green) 

Colonial  Children  (Hart) 

Colonial  Massachusetts  (Dawes) 

Curious  Homes,  etc.  (Beard) 

Each  and  All  (Andrews) 

England's  Story  (Tappan) 

English  Historical  Tales  (Morris) 

Explorers  and  Travelers  (Greely) 

Fairy  Land  of  Flowers  (Pratt) 

Fairy  Land  of  Science  (Buckley) 


A  List  of  Books  399 


Few  Familiar  Flowers  (Morley) 

Fifty  famous  Stories  retold  (Baldwin) 

First  Book  in  Geology  (Shaler) 

First  Book  of  Birds  (Miller) 

Five  Little  Peppers  (M.  Sidney) 

Four  American  Explorers  (Kmgsley) 

Four  Great  Americans  (Baldwin) 

Four  Handed  Folk  (Miller) 

Friends  and  Helpers  (Eddy) 

From  Flower  to  Fruit  (Newell) 

From  Seed  to  Leaf  (Newell) 

Geographical  Reader  (Scribners) 

Geographical  Readers  (King) 

Geographical  Readers  (Philips) 

Girls  who  became  Famous  (Bolton) 

Grandfather's  Chair  (Hawthorne) 

Greek  Heroes  (Kingsley) 

Greeks  and  Persians  (Cox) 

Hans  Brinker,  etc.  (Dodge) 

Heroes  of  History  (Towle) 

Heroes  of  the  Middle  West  (Catherwood) 

Historical  Readers  (CJilman) 

History  of  England  (Cooke) 

History  of  Rome  for  Beginners  (Shuckburgh) 

How  Our  Grandfathers  lived  (Hart) 

In  Brooks  and  Bayou  (Bayliss) 

Indian  History  for  Young  Folks  (Drake) 

Information  Readers  4  vols. 

Little  Flower  Folks  (Pratt) 

Little  Folks  of  other  Lands  (Chaplin) 

Old  South  Leaflets 

Old  Stories  of  the  East  (Baldwin) 

Old  Times  in  Colonies  (Coffin) 

Our  Own  Birds  (Bailey) 

Our  Fatherland  (Carver  and  Pratt) 

Pilgrims  and  Puritans  (Moore) 

Pioneers  of  Land  and  Sea  (McMurry) 

Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  (McMurry) 

Pioneers  of  the  West  (McMurry) 

Rome  and  Carthage  (Smith) 

Seaside  and  Wayside  (Andrews) 

Seven  Little  Sisters  (Andrews) 

Sharp  Eyes  (Burroughs) 


400  Appendix  G 

Short  Stories  from' English  History  (Blaisdell) 

Source  Book  of  American  History  (Hart) 

Source  Book  of  English  History  (Kendall) 

Squirrels  and  other  Fur  Bearers  (Burroughs) 

Stories  from  English  History  (Church) 

Stories  from  Plato  (Burt) 

Stories  from  Old  Germany  (Pratt) 

Stories  from  the  Bible  (Church) 

Stories  of  American  History  (Eggleston) 

Stories  of  Animal  Life  (Holden) 

Stories  of  Bird  Life  (Pearson) 

Stories  of  Colonial  Children  (Pratt) 

Stories  of  Great  Americans  (Eggleston) 

Stories  of  Greece  (Guerber) 

Stories  of  Our  Country  (Johonnot) 

Stories  of  the  Old  World  (Church) 

Stories  of  the  Romans  (Guerber) 

Tales  of  Troy  (DeGarmo) 

Ten  Boys  who  lived  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  till  Now 

(Andrews) 
Ten  Great  Events  in  Histoiy  (Johonnot) 
The  Children's  Crusade  (Gray) 
The  Geograpical  Story  (Dana) 
The  Story  of  the  Birds  (Baskett) 
True  Stories  from  New  England  History  (Hawthorne) 
Young  Folks'  History  of  England  (Yonge) 
Young  Folks'  History  of  France  (Yonge) 
Wigwam  Stories  (Judd) 

Books  of  Literature  (Grades  VII  and  VIII) 

Age  of  Fable  (Bulfinch) 

A  Man  without  a  Country  (Hale) 

As  You  Like  It  (Shakespeare) 

Ben  Hur  (Wallace) 

Bigelow  Papers  (Lowell)   - 

Birds  and  Bees  (Burroughs) 

Bunker  Hill  Orations  (Webster) 

Cape  Cod  (Thoreau) 

Character  (Smiles) 

Chirstmas  Carol  (Dickens) 

Cotter's  Saturday  Night  (Burns) 

Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  (Longfellow) 

Cricket  on  the  Hearth  (Dickens) 


A  List  of  Books  401 


Enoch  Arden  (Tennyson) 

Evangeline  (Longfellow) 

Giles  Corey  (Longfellow) 

Golden  Treasury  (Palgrave) 

Greek  Heroes  (Kingsley) 

Gulliver's  Travels 

Hamlet  (Shakespeare) 

Heart  of  Oak  Books  IV-VI 

Homer's  Iliad 

Hunting  of  the  Deer  (Warner) 

Idylls  of  the  King  (Tennyson) 

Ivanhoe  (Scott) 

Jason's  Quest  (Lowell) 

Julius  Caesar  (Shakespeare) 

Kennilworth  (Scott) 

Knickerbocker's  Stories  (Irving) 

Lady  of  the  Lake  (Scott) 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  (Scott) 

Light  of  Asia  (Arnold) 

Magna  Charta  Stories  (Gilman) 

Mannion  (Scott) 

Midsunmier  Night's  Dream  (Shakespeare) 

Mill  on  the  Floss  (Eliot) 

My  Hunt  after  the  Captain  (Holmes) 

Open  Sesame  vol.  Ill 

Patriotic  Reader  (Carrington) 

Peasant  and  Prince  (Martineau) 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac  (Franklin) 

Rasselas  (Johnson) 

Selections  from  the  Alhaml)ra  (Irving) 

Selections  from  Ruskin 

Self  Help  (Smiles) 

Sesame  and  Lilies  (l{uskiii) 

Seven  American  Classics  (Swinton) 

Silas  Warner  (Eliot) 

Sir  Roger  De  Coverley  (Addison) 

Sketch  Book  (Irving) 

Snow-Bound  (Whittier) 

Sohrab  and  Rustum  (Aniold) 

Stories  from  Classic  Literature  (Palmer) 

Tale  of  Two  Cities  (Dickens) 

Tales  from  ShakcMi)earc  (Laml>) 

Tales  of  a  Grandfather  (Scott) 


402  A  List  of  Books 

Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  (Longfellow) 
Tales  of  the  White  Hills  (Hawthorne) 
Toilers  of  the  Sea  (Hugo) 
The  Seasons  (Thompson) 
The  Second  Jungle  Book 
The  Talisman  (Scott) 
Tom  Brown's  School  Days  (Hughes) 
Twice  Told  Tales  (Hawthorne) 
Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  (Dana) 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  (Stowe) 
Vicar  of  Wakefield  (Goldsmith) 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  (Lowell) 
Webster's  Orations 

Books  of  Information  (Grades  VII  and  VIII) 

Adrift  in  the  Ice  Fields  (Hall) 

American  Boys'  Handy  Book  (Beard) 

American  Explorers  (Higginson) 

American  Girls'  Handy  Book  (Beard) 

American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries  (Hart) 

Among  the  Law  Makers  (Alton) 

Arctic  Alaska  and  Siberia  (Aldrich) 

A  Trip  across  the  Continent  (Lummis) 

Autobiography  (Franklin) 

Benjamin  Franklin  (More) 

Boyhood  in  Norway  (Boynton) 

Boy  Travelers  (Knox) 

Building  of  the  Nation  (Coffin) 

Bulfinch's  Age  of  Chivalry  (Hall) 

Bulfinch's  Age  of  Fable  (Hale) 

Camp  and  Firesides  of  Revolution  (Hart) 

Captains  of  Industry  (Parton) 

Child's  Book  of  Nature  Vol.  3  (Hooker) 

Child's  History  of  England  (Dickens) 

English  History  for  Beginners  (Higginson) 

Ethics  of  Success  (Thayer) 

Feats  on  the  Fiord  (Martineau) 

Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  (Creasey) 

Footprints  of  Travel  (Ballou) 

Great  American  Industries 

Hawaii  and  its  People  (Twombly) 

Life  and  her  children  (Buckley) 

Life  of  Washington  (Fiske-Irving) 


Appendix  G  +03 

Life  of  Washington  (Scudder) 

Madam  How  and  Lady  ^^lly  (Kingsley) 

Marco  Polo  (Towle) 

Modem  Europe  (Badlara) 

My  Summer  in  a  Garden  (Warner) 

Old  Stories  of  the  East  (Bakhvin) 

Our  American  Neighbors 

Paul  Jones  (Hapgood) 

Pepacton  (Burroughs) 

Plutarch's  Lives 

Sea  and  Land  (Shaler) 

Sharp  Eyes  (Burroughs) 

Side  Lights  on  American  History  (Elson) 

Stoddard's  Lectures 

Stories  from  Classic  Literature  (Palmer) 

Stories  of  the  War  (Hale) 

Story  of  a  drain  of  Wheat  (Edgar) 

Story  of  China  (Van  Bergen) 

Story  of  the  Chosen  People  (Grueber) 

Story  of  the  Iliad  (Church) 

Story  of  the  Odyssey  (Church) 

Story  of  Siegfried  (Baldwin) 

Tales  of  Charlemagne  (Plutarch) 

Tales  of  New  England  (Jewett) 

Ten  Great  P> vents  in  History  (Johonnot) 

The  American  Citizen  (Dole) 

The  Making  of  New  England  (Drake) 

The  War  of  Independence  (Fiske) 

Type  Studies  of  the  United  States  (McMurry) 

Under  the  Southern  Cross  (Ballou) 

Under  Sunny  Skies 

Views  Afoot  (Taylor) 

Walden  (Thoreau) 

Washington  and  his  Country  (Irving) 

Wake  Kol)in  (Burroughs) 

Whaling  and  Fishing  (Nordhoff) 

Winners  in  Life's  Kace  (Buckley) 

Winter  in  Central  America  and  Mexico  (Sanborn) 

Zig-Zag  Journeys  (B\itterwor1h) 


General  Plans  of  Studies  for  High 
Schools 


APPENDIX  H. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  a  course 
of  studies  for  a  single  high  school  that  will  meet 
the  needs  of  all  the  pupils  are  very  apparent. 

In  Germany  and  in  some  of  the  larger  cities  of 
this  country,  the  difficulties  are  partially  met  by 
separating  the  instruction  offered  into  two  or 
more  departments  and  by  designating  each  de- 
partment as  a  separate  school.  Thus  we  have 
in  some  places  two  or  more  of  the  following 
kinds  of  schools:  English  high  school,  Classical 
high  school.  Manual  Training  high  school,  Com- 
mercial high  school.  In  the  smaller  cities  and 
large  towns  but  one  high  school  is  maintained, 
having  several  departments  or  courses  such  as : 
General,  English,  college  preparatory,  scientific, 
mechanical,  commercial. 

In  the  smallest  schools  it  will  be  found  necess- 
ary to  limit  the  courses  to  two  or  three.  In  such 
schools  it  may  be  found  best  to  offer  as  many 
subjects  as  possible,  with  the  understanding  that 
pupils  may  select  a  given  number  with  a  max- 
imum and  minimum  limit. 

All  of  the  following  plans  except  the  first  are 
based  upon  plans  in  successful  operation  in  var- 

(404) 


General  Plans  of  Studies  for  High  Schools     4:05 

ious  kinds  of  high  schools.  If  adopted  they 
should  in  each  case  be  supplemented  by  brief 
bulletins  for  the  guidance  and  assistance  of  teach- 
ers. The  bulletins  should  be  in  the  form  of  sug- 
gestions relating  to  the  order  and  kind  of  topics 
to  be  presented,  together  with  some  hints  as  to 
the  purpose  and  means  of  carrying  on  the  work 
of  each  subject.  Some  statement  of  methods  of 
teaching  might  also  be  made  including  such  sub- 
jects as  topical  teaching,  methods  of  questioning 
and  giving  of  tasks. 


406  Appendix    H 


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INDEX 


Abnormal  children  321 

Administration,  city  and  town  32-51;  different  in  various  states 

221;  district  and  county  52-58;  duties  of  33,  34;  kinds  of  32; 

state  21-31 
Algebra  in  course  of  studies  106,  111,  112 
Apparatus,  kind  and  amount  needed  63,  64 
Apportionment  of  time  235-237 

Arithmetic,  limitations  of  108;  sequence  of  worlv  in  108 
Atkinson,  Edicard  on  ribbed  glass  for  lighting  313 
Atkinson,  F.  W.  on  a  plan  for  child  study  197-199 
Attendance  ('see  ScJiool  attendance) 
Attendance  officers,  appointment  of  14,  15;  duties  of  47-49;  state 

27 
Baths  in  school  buildings  315-317 
Blackboards,  construction  320 

Board  of  education,  see  ScJvool  board.  State  administration 
Books,  list  of  for  pupils  394  et  seq. 
Bookkeeping  as  a  branch  of  study  107 
Branches  of  study  10,  84,  96,  99,  107 
Buildings,  see  School  buildings 

Business  manager ,  duties  of,  47;  in  cities  and  large  towns,  46,  260 
Centralization,  advantages  3,  22;  disadvantages  22 
Changes  in  organization  4;  to  be  gradual  266 
Child  study,  need  of,  137;  needed  safeguards  138;  observations  and 

records  194-199;  240-242;  physical    condition    137;  record  of 

interests  138 
Clark,  T.  M.  on  ventilation  306 

Classification  of  pupils  40,  44,  124-133,  205-207,  213,  214 
Committee  of  Twelve,  extract  from  Report  relating  to  school  rev- 
enues 284 
Community  interests  181-186 
Committees  of  school  boards  37,  261 
Compulsory  school  attendance  7,  141,  222,  223 
Concentration  of  studies  93,  94 
Condon,  It.  J,  on  disinfection,  323 
Conduct,  prin('ip]es  of  18H,  189 
Consolidation  of  schools,  advantagcis  275;  dangers  278:  Dr.  Harris's 

opinion  275;  high  sclioois  281;  in   Massacliusetta  272-282;  in 
(417) 


418  Index 

New  Hampshire  275;  in  Vermont  275:  limitations  278,  279, 
no  general  law  for  280;  power  of  local  boards  280;  undesir- 
able legislation  276,  277;  various  features  of  276;  waj's  of 
conveyance  Si  81 

Co-operation  of  parents  and  teachers  192,  193 

Co-ordination  of  studies  ^2;  examples  of  93 

Corporal  punishment,  report  on,  236,  237 

Correlation  of  studies  90-95;  basis  of  94:  concentration  95 

County  supervision,  see  Supercision 

Course  of  studies,  85-124,  361  et  seq. 
branches,  362-368;  character  of,  6S,  69;  Committee  of  Fifteen, 
366;    Committee   of    Ten,   366;    criticism   of  teachers,    157 
drawing,    119-123;    elementary    science,    114;     elastic,    327 
England,  364;  extended,  73;  four  features,  95;  France,  364 
geography,  113,  114;  Germany,  365;  grouping  of  subjects, 
92;  history,  116,  119;  hygienic  conditions  of.  327-334;  indus- 
trial training,  120,  121;  method  of  making,  89;  minimum  of 
work  required,  88;  nature  study,  irill6;  outline  for  elemen- 
tary schools,  375  et  seq. ;  outline  for  high  schools,  405  et  seq; 
physiology,  113;  separate  pamphlets,  89;  singing,  121,   123, 
124;  sub-primary  class,  374,  375;    supplementary  bulletins, 
88;  superintendent's  duty  in   relation  to,  39,63;  time  limits 
78-84,  369-374;  transition  period,  327;  two  views  of,  70-73 

Curriculum,  aim  and  range  of,  95,  97,  105 

Daily  programme,  234,  235,  329,  330 

Defectipes,  schools  for,  139,  220-225;  separation  of,  13S,  139 

Defects  of  graded  schools,  207,  208 

Delinquents,  see  Defectives 

Departmental  instruction,  advantages,  133;  disadvantages,  133, 
124;  grammar  schools,  134-137;  possible  method,  135,  136; 
special  branches,  134 

Disinfectants,  322,  323 

Distance  of  pupils  from  schools,  5 

Distribution  of  funds  288,  289 

District  supernsion,  16,  26,  27,  52-55,  250,  269 

District  systems,  history  of,  249-252 

Durgin,  Dr.  on  medical  inspection,  345 

Duties,  of  superintendent,  38-44,  59-181,  256;  of  school  boards, 
32-38,  50,  56-58 

Educational  centres,  293-296 

Educational  institutions,  24,  25,  183 

Electives,  76-78 

Elementary  course,  duration  of,  66 


Index  419 

Elementary  science,  course  in.  11:2-116 

Equalization  of  privileges  and  taxation,  3,  19 

Eaten,  Mrs.  Rhoda  L.,  on  schools  for  backward  children,  *291-29:j 

Evans,  L.  B.,  on  county  plan  of  supervision,  266-269 

Evening  schools,  141-143,  193,  293;  for  common  branches,  14'2;  for 
drawing,  142;  for  higher  branches,  142;  industrial  classes,  143 

Evolution  of  school  supervisiort,  247-264 

Examinations,  \QQ-\&1 ,  Z'i'S;  examples  of  questions,  151-162;  for 
promotion,  166;  method  of  tabulating  results,  163 

Fatigue  of  pupils,  330,  331 

Feeble-minded  children,  221 

Fiske,  John,  on  central  and  local  legislation,  264 

Foreign  language  in  elementary  course,  75 

F'eedom  of  teacher,  86 

Furnald,  W.  E.,  on  number  of  feeble-minded  persons,  221 

Firniture  and  furnishings,  39,  42,  62 

Games  andplays,  188,  189,  353,  354 

Geometry,  in  the  course  of  studies,  106,  109-111,  368 

Gi'oded  schools,  defects  of,  207,  208 

Grades  and  courses,  85 

Graduation,  age  of,  86 

Grammar,  outline  for  study,  101 

Grammar  sc/iool  course,  67 

Gymnastic  exercises,  355 

Harris,  William  2\,  on  the  experience  of  Massachusetts  in  educa- 
tion, 247,  248 

Hartwell,  E.  M ,  on  moral  effects  of  physical  training,  355 

Health  officers,  appointment  of,  15;  duties  of,  358 

Heating,  305-310,  325,  326 

Hig?i  schools,  courses,  84,  85,  405-413;  maintenance  of,  17;  provision 
for,  8,  17;  state  aid  for,  8,  9 

History,  a  ba.sis  of  correlation,  94;  course  in,  118-119 

Ho}ne  study,  334-338 

Hygiene,  instruction  in,  350,  351;  see  Scfwol  hygiene 

Individualinstruction,  139,  140,  211 

Individual  needs  of  pupils,  207 

Individfud  treatuieid  of  pupils,  207-213,  356-H58 

Individual  xuork,  a  basis  of  correlation,  94 

IndijLstrial  training,  119-123 

Ineffi/iient  teachers,  168-170 

Inspection,  by  tiiesuperintendent,  153168;  examples  of  too  close 
analysis,  155,  156;  note  taking,  154,  155;  j)arlies  concerned, 
156,  157;  personal  criticism,  157;  record  of,  158  160 


420  Index 

Institvtions  for  defectives,  222 

Intertals  heticeen  classes,  804 

Isolation  of  studies,  dangers  of,  91 

Jacketed  stows,  307 

Language  studies,  limitations  of,  101-103;  time  programme,  104 

Language  teacJdng,  aim  and  scope  of,  97;  ends,  98 

Legal  requirements,  7 

/legislative provisions  relating  to  school  organization,  6-^0 

Life  iooh,  196,  241-243 

lAgMing  of  scJiool-roorns,  amount  and  direction,  311,  312;  curtains,. 

313;  prisms  and  reflectors,  323,  314 
Lincoln,  B.  F. ,  on  moral  efEects  of  games,  356 
Local  and  central  authority,  adjustment  of,  2 
Local  newspapers,  use  of,  183,  185 
Local    school    hoards,    12-14;  duties  of,    21;  selection  of,    19,   13: 

number  of  members  of,  13 
Lx>cal  taxation  for  schools,  18,  19,  285,  286 
Local  training  schools,  175,  176 
Manual  training,  120,  121;  368 
Martin,  George  H.,  on  the  district  system,  250 
Mathematics,  course  in,  105-112;  scope  of  teaching,  105 
Medical  impection,  137,  344-350;  duties  of,  49,  50;  examples  of. 

344-346;  tests  by  teachers,  349 
Meetings  of  parents,  182-186 
Meetings  of  school  hoards,  44,  50,  51,  173 
Meetings  of  teachers,  170-174;   programme,  172;  general  and  grade, 

171-173,  local  associations,  170,  171 
Normal  schools,  supported  by  the  state,  24 
Numher  of  pupils  to  a  teacher,  7,  208 
Ohstacles  to  teachers'  success,  69 
Optional  studies,  76,  77,  209 
Organization,  see  School  organization 
Outhuildings,  314,  315 

Parents,  letter  to,  341;  meetings  of,  182,  183;  reports  to,  237-240> 
Partizanship,  protection  of  school  from,  2 
Physical  director,  36 
Physical  training,  328,  351-355 
Plays  and  games,  188,  189,  353,  354 
Powers  of  school  boards,  2,  33-35,  249 
Primary  course,  67,  375-393 
Principal  as  organizer  and  supervisor,  187-201 
Pi'ivate  schools,  controlled  by  state,  25 
Professional  supervision,  35,  45,  46,  50,  150,  253,  257 


Index  421 

Programme  of  daily  exercises,  190,  191,  203,  234,  235 

Promotions  40,  44, 125-133,  209;  fault}'  methods  of,  125, 126;  plans 
of,  126-133 

Protection  of  schools,  2 

Public  sentiment,  the  awakening  of,  28,  41 

Qualifications  of  teachers,  15 

Becords  and  reports,  226,  243;  annual  and  monthly  reports  of 
teachers,  229-232:  common  for  all  states,  227-229;  of  work 
done,  232,^33;  jflipil's  record,  240-243 

Reformations,  10 

Reports,  forms  of,  237-240;  of  teachers,  230-243;  of  superintend- 
ents, 177-180;  to  parents,  237-240 

Revenues,  283-289 

Richards,  Mrs.  Ellen  H.,  on  science  of  food  to  be  taught,  351 

Rules  of  school  bofirds,  42 

Rural  schools,  supervision  of,  52-56,  265-271 

Sanitaries,  314,  315 

ScJwols,  maintained  at  public  expense,  6-10;  Evening,  141-143, 
193,  293;  Rural,  52-56,  265,  271;  Special,  220-225;  290-297; 
support  of,  17,  57,  283;  Training,  175-177  ;  Vacation,  140, 
141,  296,  297 

School  administration,  functions  of,  32;  kinds  of,  32;  city  and 
town,  32-51;  district  and  county,  52-58,  265-271;  state,  21-31 

Sclwol  attendance,  7-10,  41,  151 

Schoolboards,(}iuWesoi,2%Q;  executive  officials  of ,  35,37;  powers 
of,  2,  33-35,  249;  sub-committees  of ,  37,  38,  261;  in  France 
and  Germany,  11;  number  of  members,  259 

School  huildiwis,  construction  and  care  of,  38,  42,  00,  61;  inspec- 
tion of,  151 

School  desks  and  seats,  317-320 

Scliool  extension.  193.  293-297 

School  funds,  distribution  of,  18 

School  government,  plans  of,  159,  190.  211-219 

School  hygiene,  298-300;  avoidance  of  infection,  324;  bathing 
facilities,  300;  Ijlackboards  and  crayons,  320;  books  and  arti- 
cles upon,  359,  360;  care  of  school  room,  321 ;  cause  of  weak- 
ness, 339,  340;  conditions  of,  298;  course  of  studies,  320  et  seq. ; 
disinfection,  323;  drinking  cups,  321,  323;  examinations,  328; 
defectives,  328,  329;  eyes,  325;  fatigue.  330,  331 ;  furniture, 
317etseq. ;  health  officer,  358;  home  study,  331-338;  inspec- 
tion and  supervision,  343-350;  intermissiouH,  332;  lighting  of 
school  rooms,  311  et  se<i. ;  location  of  buildings,  29S,  299; 
outside   conditions,  338,   339;   over   pressure,    3:U);    pirsonal 


422  Index 

habits  of  boys,  340;  physical  training,  300,  328,  334,  351-854; 
school  sessions,  333;  size  of  school-rooms,  299,  300;  tests  of 
purity  of  air,  301;  ventilation,  301  etseq.,  325,  326;  water 
closets  and  out  buildings,  314  et  seq.,  322;  water  supply, 
315;  windows  and  curtains,  324 

Seliool  arganization,  city  and  town,  32-51;  district  and  county, 
52-58;  nature  and  source  of,  1-5;  legislative  proceedings  relat- 
ing to,  6-20;  principal,  187-201;  state,  21-31;  superintendent, 
59-149;  teacher,  202-219 

School  revenues,  283,  et  seq. 

School  rooms,  size  of,  62 

School  savings,  194 

School  supervision,  see  Supervision 

School  systems,  changes  in,  4 

ScJiool  year,  length  of,  7 

Secretary  of  school  board,  36,  37 

Self  control,  ways  of  encouraging,  189,  190.  214-219 

Sessions  of  schools,  333 

Shaw,  Edward  E.,  on  ventilation  of  rural  school  houses,  308-311 

Spelling,  100 

Special  supervisors,  35,  36 

Special  classes  and  schools;  defectives  and  delinquents,  138,  139, 
220,  225;  educational  centres,  293-296;  evening  schools,  141- 
143;  individual  instruction,  139,  140,  212;  maintenance  by 
state,  9,  10;  mentally  weak,  223,  290-293,  328,  329;  vacation 
schools,  140,  141,  296,  297 

State  administration  oi  schools,  2l-d\;  state  board,  10-12,  22-24, 
28,  251,  252,  262,  263;  state  superintendent,  28-31 

State  aid,  54,  284 

Statistical  blanks,  27 

Statistics,  226,  532 

Study,  school  and  home,  334-338 

Superintendent  of  scJwols,  as  organizer,  59-149;  as  supervisor,  150- 
181 ;  powers  and  duties  of,  38-44 

Sub-pi'imary  class,  65,  66,  374,  375 

Supervision,  amount,  180,  181,  200;  benefit  of,  150,  258;  by  princi- 
pals, 200,  'Z0\;  by  superintendent,  150-181;  evolution  of,  247- 
264;  favorable  conditions,  247-264;  ideals  of,  261-264;  in 
cities,  45;  in  counties  and  riu'al  districts,  14,  16,  26,  56-58; 
565-271;  laws  relating  to,  15,  16,  262;  principles  of,  52;  pro- 
fessional, 35,  45,  46,  50,  150,  253,  257 

Support  of  schools,  17,  57,  283 

Supervision  of  pupils,  44 


Index  4:23 

Tasks,  assignment  of,  210,  211 

Taomtion  of  schools,  283-289;  difficulties  of,  17;  equalization  of, 
3,  19;  local,  18 

Teachers,  as  organizers,  202-220;  certification  of,  26;  examination 
of,  146;  method  of  securing,  145;  nomination  by  superintend- 
ent, 40,  145;  training  of,  174-177;  trial  test  of,  147;  qualifi- 
cations of ,  15,25,143-147,  279;  reports  of,  219-232;  superin- 
tendent's relation  to,  43 

Teachers'  meetings,  170-174 

^gxt-books,  free,  148,  149;  selection  of,  191 

Text-books  and  supplies,  147-149 

Time  limits  of  various  branches,  78-84,  369-374 

Training  schools,  175-177 

I'ruant  officers,  see  Attendance  officers 

Truant  schools,  maintenance  of  ^  9 

Union  district,  plan  of  supervision,  see  District  Kiipervision 

Vacation  schools,  140,  141,  299,  297 

Ventilation  oi  sc\\oo\  rooms,  301-311,  325,  326 

Water  supply,  315 


7^  '^^ 


UCLA-Young  Research   Library 

LB2805   .P93 

y 


L  009   583  465   1 


